Softwares,Musics,Vedios,Themes,Business plan and more........

HINDI MOVIE

2008-12-02T22:40:00.000-08:00

Movie
Movie Singh Is King (2008) (Hindi) dvdrip
10/30
w-47.com
Movie
Amu 2008 1CD DVDRip XviD Hindi Movie
08/26
Rapidshare Link
Movie
Mission Instaanbul PDVDRip Movie 2008 Hindi
08/04
WarezGarden
Movie
Indian Cowboy Hindi Movie
06/27
Rapidshare Movi
Movie
Woh Lamhe Hindi Movie
06/27
^
Movie
Kabhi Alvida Na kehna Hindi Movie
06/27
^
Movie
Scary Movie 3 2003 In Hindi DVDRip
06/08
Free Movies

MOVIE LINK

2008-12-02T22:37:00.000-08:00

GAME'S LINK

2008-12-02T22:35:00.000-08:00

Game
Grand Theft Auto IV
Today
RENSLT
Game
Grand Theft Auto 4
Today
warezgen
Game
The Royal Marines Commando
Today
^
Game
Dracula Resurrection
Today
^
Game
Legendary
Today
^
Game
Bionic Commando Rearmed
Today
^
Game
Colin Mcrae DiRT
Today
^
Game
Texas Holdem Poker 3D Deluxe Edition
Today
^
Game
Call of Duty
Today
^
Game
Shaun White Snowboarding
Today
^
Game
Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds
Today
AppZone
Game
Mass Effect
Today
^
Game
Law & Order Criminal Intent: The Vengeful Heart
Today
TechFreaks
Game
The Color of Murder
Today
^
Game
Last Half of Darkness: Shadows of the Servants (RIP)
Today
^
Game
Grand Theft Auto IV MultiLang
Today
^
Game
Theatre of War
Today
^
Game
Etrom
Today
^
Game
A Vampyre Story
Today
^
Game
Grand Theft Auto IV
Today
^
Game
Shaun White Snowboarding
Today
^
Game
GTR Evolution
Today
^
Game
RTL Biathlon 2009-Reloaded
Today
^
Game
Super Mario 4
Today
^
Game
Hospital Tycoon 2007
Today
^
Game
Tiny Cars 2.1
Today
^
Game
Beijing 2008
Today
^
Game
GTA IV
Today
^
Game
Mercenaries 2 World in Flames
Today
^
Game
The Sims 2: All Stuffs
Today
^
Game
FlatOut Ultimate Carnage 3
Today
^
Game
Shaun White Snowboarding
Today
^
Game
Two Worlds
Today
^
Game
Battlestations Midway
Today
^
Game
Kung Fu Panda
Today
Game
Spider-Man 2: The Game
Today
TechFreaks
Game
GTA.IV-Clonedvd
Today
CybaWarez
Game
Grand Theft Auto IV PC Edition
Today
RENSLT
Game
CSI: NY The Game
Today
Razew
Game
Grand Theft Auto IV
Today
RENSLT
Game
The Guild 2: Venice
Today
WarezX
Game
S.T.A.L.K.E.R: Clear Sky
Today
^
Game
Juiced 2 Hot Import Nights
Today
^
Game
Brothers in Arms: Hells Highway
Today
^
Game
Fifa 09 Full
Today
^
Game
Galactic Civilizations II Ultimate Edition
Today
^
Game
The Royale Marines Commando
Today
^
Game
Need For Speed Undercover
Today
^
Game
Action Ball 2
Today
^
Game
Luxor 4 : Quest For The Afterlife
Today
^
Game
Shaun White Snowboarding
Today
^
Game
RTL Biathlon 2009
Today
^
Game
Resident Evil 4
Today
^
Game
Grand Theft Auto IV
Today
^
Game
Grand Theft Auto: IV
Today
Dl-share
Game
Star Defender 4
Today
spicyforums.com
Game
Call Of Duty 5: World At War US (NDS)
Today
^
Game
Viva Pinata Pocket Paradise (NDS)
Today
^
Game
The Sims 2: Pets
Today
^
Game
The Sims 2: Bon Voyage
Today
^
Game
The Sims 2: University
Today
^
Game
Football Superstars
Today
^
Game
Black and White 2
Today
^
Game
Crazy Chicken: Heart of Tibet (Portable)
Today
^
Game
Heart of Darkness
Today
^
Game
Hospital Tycoon
Today
AppZone
Game
Shaun White Snowboarding
Today
^
Game
Hellgate: London
Today
^
Game
Resident Evil 4
Today
RENSLT

SOFTWARE LINK

2008-12-02T22:28:00.000-08:00

App
Adobe Photoshop Lightroom 2.1 Build 512205
Today
WatchingDucks
App
Video Edit Magic v4.45
Today
RENSLT
App
Your Uninstaller Pro 2008
Today
^
App
AVI DVD Burner 2008 3.0
Today
^
App
AVG Anti-Virus PRO 8.0
Today
^
App
Real-DRAW Pro 5.2.1
Today
^
App
Boujou 4.1.0 Build 28444
Today
^
App
Trojan Remover 6.7.4
Today
warezgen
App
Error Repair Professional v3.8.9
Today
^
App
DVD-Cloner Platinum v6.00.976
Today
^
App
OJOsoft Total Video Converter 2.5.1.1121
Today
^
App
CyberLink DVD Suite v7.0 Ultra
Today
^
App
Blumentals WeBuilder 9.3.0.101
Today
^
App
Extra Video Effect Editor 6.02
Today
^
App
Apollo PSP Video Converter 4.0.5
Today
^
App
AnyDVD AnyDVD HD 6.4.9.0
Today
^
App
ImTOO DVD Ripper Ultimate 5.0.46.1121
Today
^
App
Multiboot Windows XP SP3 VLK
Today
Aioforum
App
Windows Ice XP v4.1 Elite CD
Today
^
App
Absolute MP3 Splitter Converter v2.8.1
Today
^
App
Radar Screensaver v1.71
Today
^
App
CCleaner 2.14.763
Today
^
App
Hard Disk Tune-Up v1.0.231.5346
Today
^
App
Lavalys EVEREST Ultimate Edition v4.60.1576 Beta
Today
^
App
Media Player Classic - Home Cinema 1.2.908.0
Today
^
App
TurboFTP 6.00 Build 712
Today
^
App
CyberLink DVD Suite v7.0
Today
Legendarydevils
App
Panda Antivirus Plus Firewall 2008
Today
^
App
AVG Internet Security 8.0
Today
^
App
Symantec PcAnywhere Multilingual 12.5.0.265
Today
^
App
Ashampoo UnInstaller Platinum 2.90
Today
^
App
Total Commander Ultima Prime 4.5
Today
^
App
PowerArchiver 2009 v11.00.78
Today
^
App
Atomix Virtual DJ Pro v5.2
Today
^
App
Yamicsoft Vista Manager v2.0.0
Today
^

App
CyberLink PowerCinema v6.0.0.2221
Today
Legendarydevils
App
Gom Player v2.1
Today
MegaSoftDDL
App
VueScan Pro 8.4.96 Multilingual
Today
^
App
Ashampoo Photo Optimizer 3 v3.03
Today
^
App
System Mechanic Professional v8.0.3.2
Today
^
App
Portable Photodex ProShow Gold 3.5.2249
Today
^
App
Norton Gamers Edition 2009
Today
^
App
CheckPoint ZoneAlarm ForceField v1.1.82.0.
Today
^
App
Sony Forge Audio Studio 9.0d
Today
^
App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 Gaming Edition 16.1.0.33
Today
^
App
Windows XP USB Stick Edition 2 (Portable)
Today
^
App
Post-it Digital Notes 4.2.0.28
Today
AppZone
App
Reflection Generator 2.6
Today
^
App
Winamp 5.5 FULL with Plugins + 30 Skin
Today
^
App
Typing Master Pro 2007 v.7.0
Today
^
App
IBM Rational AppScan Enterprise Edition v7.7.654
Today
^
App
n-Track Studio 6.0.2
Today
Razew
App
Kingsoft Office 2009 Professional 6.3.0.1733
Today
^
App
Nikon Capture NX2 v. 2.0
Today
^
App
Orcad PSpice 9.2
Today
RENSLT
App
Registry Booster 2009
Today
^
App
CloneCD 5.3.1.3
Today
^
App
Driver Genius 2007 v7.1.0.622 Professional Edition
Today
^
App
Windows Vista Extreme Edition
Today
WarezX
App
Macromedia Dreamweaver 8
Today
^
App
Sony Vegas Platinum Edition 9.0
Today
^
App
HandyFileSearch 1.1.0
Today
^
App
Portable Blaze Media Pro v8.0.0.5
Today
^
App
FRAPS 2.9.6 full
Today
^
App
IDM UltraEdit v14.20.1.1000
Today
^
App
Ad-Aware 2008 Pro
Today
^
App
Total Commander 7.04
Today
^
App
Portable Yahoo Messenger 9.0.797
Today
^
App
CloneCD 5.3.1.3 Final + key
Today
^
App
Divx Create Bundle PRO v6.8.5.11
Today
^
App
KEmulator v0.9.7
Today
WarezX
App
SchoolBell 5.0
Today
Aio Warez
App
Coffee Cup HTML Editor 2008
Today
^
App
Apollo No1 DVD Ripper v8.0.9
Today
spicyforums.com
App
ZC DVD Creator Platinum v6.2.6
Today
^
App
Agogo DVD To iPod Video Converter 6.91
Today
^
App
GoodOk DVD Ripper Gold 5.0
Today
^
App
Speed Video Converter v4.2.4
Today
^
App
GoodOk Video Converter Gold 5.0
Today
^
App
A123 All Video Converter Platinum v 6.0
Today
^
App
Allok RM RMVB to AVI MPEG DVD Converter 3.1.1107
Today
^
App
Arial CD Ripper v1.9.1
Today
^
App
Aone Movie DVD Maker v2.6.1008
Today
^
App
Xilisoft Video Converter Ultimate 5.1.17.1114
Today
^
App
Xilisoft DVD Creator 3.0.39.1023
Today
^
App
321 Video Converter 1.2.27
Today
^
App
Aglare Music Converter Platinum 6.4
Today
^
App
Easy Avi Divx Xvid to DVD Burner 2.7.27
Today
^
App
A-Z Video Converter Ultimate v8.29
Today
^
App
Nero 9 v9.0.9.4c Lite Edition
Today
SmartForumZ
App
Babylon Pro 7.0.3.24
Today
^
App
ImTOO DVD Ripper Ultimate 5.0.46.1121
Today
^
App
OJOsoft Total Video Converter 2.5.1.1121
Today
^
App
Kaspersky Anti-Virus 2009 (Portable)
Today
^
App
Hard Disk Tune-Up 1.0.231.5346
Today
Filezfree.com
App
AdminToys Suite 2008 1.1.1100
Today
^
App
AutoClick 2.2
Today
^
App
Trustsoft HistoryKill 2008 1.0
Today
^
App
RarmaRadio 2.25 Multilingual
Today
^
App
MP3TagEditor v2.07
Today
^
App
HDD Regenerator 1.51
Today
^
App
ImTOO FLV Converter 3.1.44.1105b
Today
^
App
ArcSoft Photo Panorama Maker 4
Today
AppZone
App
AMS Photo Art Studio 1.31
Today
^
App
WebPosition Professional 4 (build 785)
Today
^
App
RatioMaster - For a good torrent ratio
Today
AppZone
App
Roxio Creator 2009
Today
^
App
GeekSquad MRI 5.0.0.0
Today
^
App
Real-DRAW Pro 5.2.1
Today
^
App
Antares Autotune VST RTAS TDM v5.08
Today
^
App
Europress: SATS Tuition Maths 9-11
Today
^
App
Eltima Software Application as Service v3.0.0.61
Today
^
App
BSplayer Pro 2.32 (Build 975)
Today
Filezfree.com
App
IsoBuster 2.5
Today
^
App
Windows Updates Downloader
Today
Only
App
VSO ConvertXtoDVD 3.3.0.96 (Portable)
Today
eSoft.in
App
Save2pc PRO 3.4.6.0
Today
^
App
DVD Catalyst 3 v3.7
Today
^
App
Norton Systemworks 2009 Premier Edition v.12.0.0.52
Today
^
App
WinTools.NET Professional v10.0.1
Today
^
App
Windows XP Media Center Edition 2008 With SP3
Today
^
App
EVil Slim Vista Ultimate
Today
^
App
TMPGenc Authoring Works v4.0.0.9
Today
^
App
Ableton live 7.0.3
Today
^
App
VideoFab Converter 1.0.1.0
Today
^
App
EuMAX Sev7n Inspirat Pack 1.0
Today
^
App
Desktop Sidebar v1.06
Today
^
App
Kerio WinRoute Firewall v6.5.2.5172
Today
^
App
Windows Defender 1.1.1593
Today
^
App
Rapidshare Tools 10 in 1
Today
^
App
ChrisTV PVR Professional v5.25 Multilingual
Today
^
App
East-Tec Eraser 2009 v9.0.1.100
Today
^
App
Axialis IconWorkshop v6.32 Professional Edition
Today
^
App
EASEUS Partition Manager Home Edition 3.0
Today
^
App
Save2pc PRO 3.4.6.0
Today
Forumcraze
App
VSO ConvertXtoDVD 3.3.0.96 (Portable)
Today
^
App
NetSarang Xmanager Enterprise v3.0.0172
Today
^
App
Picture Collage Maker v2.0.2.1976
Today
^
App
DVDFab Platinum 5.1.2.2 Final
Today
^
App
Norton Systemworks 2009 Premier Edition v.12.0.0.52
Today
^
App
Multiboot Windows XP SP3 VLK Install CD
Today
Forumcraze
App
Windows Ice XP v4.1 Elite CD
Today
^
App
Hard Disk Tune-Up v1.0.231.5346
Today
^
App
TurboFTP 6.00 Build 712
Today
^
App
VLC Media Player 0.9.7 (Portable)
Today
^
App
Alchemy Mindworks Presentation Wizard 2.0a58
Today
^
App
Outpost Security Suite Pro 2009 Build 6.5.2359.316.06
Today
^
App
Glary Utilities PRO 2.9.0.518 (Portable)
Today
^
App
AnyDVD AnyDVD HD v6.4.9.0 Final
Today
^
App
PowerArchiver 2009 11.03.04 (Portable)
Today
^
App
Symantec PcAnywhere 12.5.0.265
Today
^
App
AdaXP Vienna Black Edition SP3 Final v.1.7.5
Today
^
App
Photo DVDMaker Professional 7.97
Today
^
App
Western Railway 3D Screensaver 1.0
Today
^
App
Nero 9.0.9.4D
Today
Vanillashare
App
Systweak Advanced System Protector 2.0.318.1426
Today
^
App
TuneUp Utilities 8.0.1100.0
Today
^
App
Clean My Pc Registry Cleaner 4.11
Today
^
App
Dvd Fab Gold 5.1.1.8.0
Today
^
App
Win Rar 2009
Today
^
App
Virtual Dj 5.2 Pro
Today
^
App
Stardock Object Dock Plus 1.90
Today
^
App
Security Task Manager 1.7f
Today
^
App
Internet Download Accelerator 5.6.1.1133
Today
^
App
Microsoft Office 2007 Ultimate 26 Languages
Today
All You Wanna
App
Digital Juice Sound FX IV Human
Today
^
App
PowerArchiver 2009 v11.03
Today
^
App
IDM UltraCompare Professional v6.00.3
Today
^
App
Spyware Cease v2.2.3
Today
SKDown.Net
App
ModelRight Professional v3.0.0.59
Today
^
App
DSV PHP Editor v2.3.1
Today
^
App
Antamedia Internet Caffe v5.4.0
Today
^
App
Easy Calendar Maker 2008
Today
^
App
CheckPoint ZoneAlarm With Antivirus 8.0.59.000
Today
^
App
Kaspersky Anti-Virus 8.0.0.506
Today
^
App
Limewire Pro Latest 4.18.8
Today
SKDown.Net
App
GetData RecoverMyFiles 3.98.6173 (Portable)
Today
^
App
Hard Disk Tune-Up v1.0.231.5346
Today
Kinggexa
App
Transmac 8.1
Today
Link Wizards
App
Readiris Pro v11 Multilanguage
Today
^
App
Trillian Pro 3.1.12.0
Today
^
App
Nero 9.2.5.0
Today
^
App
Salon Styler Pro v5.2.1
Today
^
App
Trojan Remover 6.7.4 Build 2554
Today
^
App
Enfocus Pitstop Professional 7.51
Today
^
App
Foxit PDF Suite
Today
^
App
Blindwrite Suite 6.2.0.1 (Portable) Multilang
Today
^
App
Paragon Hard Disk Manager Pro 2009
Today
^
App
SoundTaxi Pro + VideoRip v3.4.5
Today
Kinggexa
App
TuneUp WinStyler Portable 4.1.2420
Today
^
App
Acronis True Image Home 2009 v12.0 Build 9646 English
Today
^
App
Outpost Security Suite Pro 2009 Build 6.5.2359.316.0607
Today
^
App
Corel Draw Graphics Suite X4
Today
L0RDW4R3Z
App
Internet Download Manager V5.15.2.0
Today
Waz-Warez
App
Blumentals Rapid PHP 2008 v9.3.0.101
Today
DownloadPresent
App
Genie Backup Manager Professional 8.0.340.510
Today
^
App
CyberLink LabelPrint 2.00.502
Today
^
App
Adobe Lightroom 2.0
Today
Flaminbox
App
Watermark Master 2.2.8
Today
DownloadPresent
App
Blumentals Rapid PHP 2008 v9.3.0.101
Today
^
App
Acme CAD Converter v7.96
Today
^
App
Wiley Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007 Bible
Today
^
App
Genie Backup Manager Professional 8.0.340.510
Today
^
App
CyberLink LabelPrint 2.00.502
Today
^
App
ProDAD Heroglyph 2.6.24
Today
^
App
Real Spy Monitor 2.88
Today
SkillWare Blog
App
Perfect Uninstaller 6.2.8
Today
^
App
R-Wipe Clean 8.0.1461
Today
^
App
1Click DVD Copy Pro 3.2.5.0
Today
^
App
VSO ConvertXtoDVD 3.2.9.94
Today
^

SONG'S LYRIC-SUMMER OF 69

2008-09-30T22:37:00.000-07:00

I got my first real six-string
Bought it at the five-and-dime
Played it till my fingers bled
It was the summer of 69

Me and some guys from school
Had a band and we tried real hard
Jimmy quit and jody got married
I shoulda known wed never get far
Oh when I look back now
That summer seemed to last forever
And if I had the choice
Ya - Id always wanna be there
Those were the best days of my life

Aint no use in complainin
When you got a job to do
Spent my evenins down at the drive-in
And thats when I met you

Standin on your mamas porch
You told me that youd wait forever
Oh and when you held my hand
I knew that it was now or never
Those were the best days of my life

Back in the summer of 69

Man we were killin time
We were young and restless
We needed to unwind
I guess nothin can last forever - forever, no

And now the times are changin
Look at everything thats come and gone
Sometimes when I play that old six-string
I think about ya wonder what went wrong

Standin on your mamas porch
You told me it would last forever
Oh the way you held my hand
I knew that it was now or never
Those were the best days of my life

Back in the summer of 69

SONG'S LYRIC-WALK ALONE

2008-09-30T22:36:00.000-07:00

I walk a lonely road
The only one that I have ever known
Don't know where it goes
But it's home to me and I walk alone

I walk this empty street
On the Boulevard of Broken Dreams
Where the city sleeps
and I'm the only one and I walk alone

I walk alone
I walk alone

I walk alone
I walk a...

My shadow's the only one that walks beside me
My shallow heart's the only thing that's beating
Sometimes I wish someone out there will find me
'Til then I walk alone

Ah-ah, Ah-ah, Ah-ah, Aaah-ah,
Ah-ah, Ah-ah, Ah-ah

I'm walking down the line
That divides me somewhere in my mind
On the border line
Of the edge and where I walk alone

Read between the lines
What's fucked up and everything's alright
Check my vital signs
To know I'm still alive and I walk alone

I walk alone
I walk alone

I walk alone
I walk a...

My shadow's the only one that walks beside me
My shallow heart's the only thing that's beating
Sometimes I wish someone out ther

SONG'S LYRIC-NUMB

2008-09-30T22:34:00.000-07:00

I'm tired of being what you want me to be
feeling so faithless
lost under the surface
I don't know what you're expecting of me
put under the pressure
of walking in your shoes
[caught in the undertow, just caught in the undertow]
every step that I take is another mistake to you
[caught in the undertow, just caught in the undertow]

I've
become so numb
I can't feel you there
become so tired
so much more aware
I'm becoming this
all I want to do
is be more like me
and be less like you.

can't you see that you're smothering me
holding too tightly
afraid to lose control
cause everything that you thought I would be
is falling apart right in front of you.

[caught in the undertow, just caught in the undertow],
every step that I take is another mistake to you
[caught in the undertow,just caught in the undertow]
and every second I waste is more than I can take.

I've
become so numb
I can't feel you there
become so tired
so much more aware
I'm becoming this
all I want to do
is be more like me
and be less like you.

And I know
I may end up failing too

But I know
you were just like me
with someone disappointed in you.

I've
become so numb
I can't feel you there
become so tired
so much more aware
I'm becoming this
all I want to do
is be more like me
and be less like
I've
become so numb
I can't feel you there
[tired of being what you want me to be]
(repeat x 2)

STUDY NOTES-8085 MICROPROCESSOR

2008-09-30T22:28:00.000-07:00

Tutorial
On
Introduction to 8085 Architecture and Programming
Contents
1. Internal architecture of 8085 microprocessor
2. 8085 system bus
3. 8085 pin description.
4. 8085 functional description.
5. Programming model of 8085 microprocessor
6. Addressing modes.
7. Instruction set classification.
8. Instruction format.
9. Sample programs.
1. Internal Architecture of 8085 Microprocessor
Control Unit
Generates signals within uP to carry out the instruction, which has been decoded. In
reality causes certain connections between blocks of the uP to be opened or closed, so
that data goes where it is required, and so that ALU operations occur.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The ALU performs the actual numerical and logic operation such as ‘add’, ‘subtract’,
‘AND’, ‘OR’, etc. Uses data from memory and from Accumulator to perform
arithmetic. Always stores result of operation in Accumulator.
Registers
The 8085/8080A-programming model includes six registers, one accumulator, and
one flag register, as shown in Figure. In addition, it has two 16-bit registers: the stack
pointer and the program counter. They are described briefly as follows.
The 8085/8080A has six general-purpose registers to store 8-bit data; these are
identified as B,C,D,E,H, and L as shown in the figure. They can be combined as
register pairs - BC, DE, and HL - to perform some 16-bit operations. The
programmer can use these registers to store or copy data into the registers by using
data copy instructions.
Accumulator
The accumulator is an 8-bit register that is a part of arithmetic/logic unit (ALU). This
register is used to store 8-bit data and to perform arithmetic and logical operations.
The result of an operation is stored in the accumulator. The accumulator is also
identified as register A.
Flags
The ALU includes five flip-flops, which are set or reset after an operation according
to data conditions of the result in the accumulator and other registers. They are called
Zero(Z), Carry (CY), Sign (S), Parity (P), and Auxiliary Carry (AC) flags; they are
listed in the Table and their bit positions in the flag register are shown in the Figure
below. The most commonly used flags are Zero, Carry, and Sign. The microprocessor
uses these flags to test data conditions.
For example, after an addition of two numbers, if the sum in the accumulator id larger
than eight bits, the flip-flop uses to indicate a carry -- called the Carry flag (CY) -- is
set to one. When an arithmetic operation results in zero, the flip-flop called the
Zero(Z) flag is set to one. The first Figure shows an 8-bit register, called the flag
register, adjacent to the accumulator. However, it is not used as a register; five bit
positions out of eight are used to store the outputs of the five flip-flops. The flags are
stored in the 8-bit register so that the programmer can examine these flags (data
conditions) by accessing the register through an instruction.
These flags have critical importance in the decision-making process of the micro-
processor. The conditions (set or reset) of the flags are tested through the software
instructions. For example, the instruction JC (Jump on Carry) is implemented to
change the sequence of a program when CY flag is set. The thorough understanding
of flag is essential in writing assembly language programs.
Program Counter (PC)
This 16-bit register deals with sequencing the execution of instructions. This register
is a memory pointer. Memory locations have 16-bit addresses, and that is why this is a
16-bit register.
The microprocessor uses this register to sequence the execution of the instructions.
The function of the program counter is to point to the memory address from which the
next byte is to be fetched. When a byte (machine code) is being fetched, the program
counter is incremented by one to point to the next memory location
Stack Pointer (SP)
The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register used as a memory pointer. It points to a
memory location in R/W memory, called the stack. The beginning of the stack is
defined by loading 16-bit address in the stack pointer. The stack concept is explained
in the chapter "Stack and Subroutines."
Instruction Register/Decoder
Temporary store for the current instruction of a program. Latest instruction sent here
from memory prior to execution. Decoder then takes instruction and ‘decodes’ or
interprets the instruction. Decoded instruction then passed to next stage.
Memory Address Register
Holds address, received from PC, of next program instruction. Feeds the address bus
with addresses of location of the program under execution.
Control Generator
Generates signals within uP to carry out the instruction which has been decoded. In
reality causes certain connections between blocks of the uP to be opened or closed, so
that data goes where it is required, and so that ALU operations occur.
Register Selector
This block controls the use of the register stack in the example. Just a logic circuit
which switches between different registers in the set will receive instructions from
Control Unit.
General Purpose Registers
uP requires extra registers for versatility. Can be used to store additional data during a
program. More complex processors may have a variety of differently named registers.
Microprogramming
How does the µP knows what an instruction means, especially when it is only a
binary number? The microprogram in a uP/uC is written by the chip designer and tells
the uP/uC the meaning of each instruction uP/uC can then carry out operation.
2. 8085 System Bus
Typical system uses a number of busses, collection of wires, which transmit binary
numbers, one bit per wire. A typical microprocessor communicates with memory and
other devices (input and output) using three busses: Address Bus, Data Bus and
Control Bus.
Address Bus
One wire for each bit, therefore 16 bits = 16 wires. Binary number carried alerts
memory to ‘open’ the designated box. Data (binary) can then be put in or taken
out.The Address Bus consists of 16 wires, therefore 16 bits. Its "width" is 16 bits. A
16 bit binary number allows 216 different numbers, or 32000 different numbers, ie
0000000000000000 up to 1111111111111111. Because memory consists of boxes,
each with a unique address, the size of the address bus determines the size of memory,
which can be used. To communicate with memory the microprocessor sends an
address on the address bus, eg 0000000000000011 (3 in decimal), to the memory. The
memory the selects box number 3 for reading or writing data. Address bus is
unidirectional, ie numbers only sent from microprocessor to memory, not other way.
Question?: If you have a memory chip of size 256 kilobytes (256 x 1024 x 8 bits),
how many wires does the address bus need, in order to be able to specify an address in
this memory? Note: the memory is organized in groups of 8 bits per location,
therefore, how many locations must you be able to specify?
Data Bus
Data Bus: carries ‘data’, in binary form, between µP and other external units, such as
memory. Typical size is 8 or 16 bits. Size determined by size of boxes in memory and
µP size helps determine performance of µP. The Data Bus typically consists of 8
wires. Therefore, 28 combinations of binary digits. Data bus used to transmit "data",
ie information, results of arithmetic, etc, between memory and the microprocessor.
Bus is bi-directional. Size of the data bus determines what arithmetic can be done. If
only 8 bits wide then largest number is 11111111 (255 in decimal). Therefore, larger
number have to be broken down into chunks of 255. This slows microprocessor. Data
Bus also carries instructions from memory to the microprocessor. Size of the bus
therefore limits the number of possible instructions to 256, each specified by a
separate number.
Control Bus
Control Bus are various lines which have specific functions for coordinating and
controlling uP operations. Eg: Read/NotWrite line, single binary digit. Control
whether memory is being ‘written to’ (data stored in mem) or ‘read from’ (data taken
out of mem) 1 = Read, 0 = Write. May also include clock line(s) for
timing/synchronising, ‘interrupts’, ‘reset’ etc. Typically µP has 10 control lines.
Cannot function correctly without these vital control signals.
The Control Bus carries control signals partly unidirectional, partly bi-directional.
Control signals are things like "read or write". This tells memory that we are either
reading from a location, specified on the address bus, or writing to a location
specified. Various other signals to control and coordinate the operation of the system.
Modern day microprocessors, like 80386, 80486 have much larger busses. Typically
16 or 32 bit busses, which allow larger number of instructions, more memory
location, and faster arithmetic. Microcontrollers organized along same lines, except:
because microcontrollers have memory etc inside the chip, the busses may all be
internal. In the microprocessor the three busses are external to the chip (except for the
internal data bus). In case of external busses, the chip connects to the busses via
buffers, which are simply an electronic connection between external bus and the
internal data bus.
3. 8085 Pin description.
Properties
Single + 5V Supply
4 Vectored Interrupts (One is Non Maskable)
Serial In/Serial Out Port
Decimal, Binary, and Double Precision Arithmetic
Direct Addressing Capability to 64K bytes of memory
The Intel 8085A is a new generation, complete 8 bit parallel central processing unit
(CPU). The 8085A uses a multiplexed data bus. The address is split between the 8bit
address bus and the 8bit data bus. Figures are at the end of the document.
Pin Description
The following describes the function of each pin:
A6 - A1s (Output 3 State)
Address Bus; The most significant 8 bits of the memory address or the 8 bits of the I/0
address,3 stated during Hold and Halt modes.
AD0 - 7 (Input/Output 3state)
Multiplexed Address/Data Bus; Lower 8 bits of the memory address (or I/0 address)
appear on the bus during the first clock cycle of a machine state. It then becomes the
data bus during the second and third clock cycles. 3 stated during Hold and Halt
modes.
ALE (Output)
Address Latch Enable: It occurs during the first clock cycle of a machine state and
enables the address to get latched into the on chip latch of peripherals. The falling
edge of ALE is set to guarantee setup and hold times for the address information.
ALE can also be used to strobe the status information. ALE is never 3stated.
SO, S1 (Output)
Data Bus Status. Encoded status of the bus cycle:
S1 S0
O O HALT
0 1 WRITE
1 0 READ
1 1 FETCH
S1 can be used as an advanced R/W status.
RD (Output 3state)
READ; indicates the selected memory or 1/0 device is to be read and that the Data
Bus is available for the data transfer.
WR (Output 3state)
WRITE; indicates the data on the Data Bus is to be written into the selected memory
or 1/0 location. Data is set up at the trailing edge of WR. 3stated during Hold and Halt
modes.
READY (Input)
If Ready is high during a read or write cycle, it indicates that the memory or
peripheral is ready to send or receive data. If Ready is low, the CPU will wait for
Ready to go high before completing the read or write cycle.
HOLD (Input)
HOLD; indicates that another Master is requesting the use of the Address and Data
Buses. The CPU, upon receiving the Hold request. will relinquish the use of buses as
soon as the completion of the current machine cycle. Internal processing can continue.
The processor can regain the buses only after the Hold is removed. When the Hold is
acknowledged, the Address, Data, RD, WR, and IO/M lines are 3stated.
HLDA (Output)
HOLD ACKNOWLEDGE; indicates that the CPU has received the Hold request and
that it will relinquish the buses in the next clock cycle. HLDA goes low after the Hold
request is removed. The CPU takes the buses one half clock cycle after HLDA goes
low.
INTR (Input)
INTERRUPT REQUEST; is used as a general purpose interrupt. It is sampled only
during the next to the last clock cycle of the instruction. If it is active, the Program
Counter (PC) will be inhibited from incrementing and an INTA will be issued. During
this cycle a RESTART or CALL instruction can be inserted to jump to the interrupt
service routine. The INTR is enabled and disabled by software. It is disabled by Reset
and immediately after an interrupt is accepted.
INTA (Output)
INTERRUPT ACKNOWLEDGE; is used instead of (and has the same timing as) RD
during the Instruction cycle after an INTR is accepted. It can be used to activate the
8259 Interrupt chip or some other interrupt port.
RST 5.5
RST 6.5 - (Inputs)
RST 7.5
RESTART INTERRUPTS; These three inputs have the same timing as I NTR except
they cause an internal RESTART to be automatically inserted.
RST 7.5 ~~ Highest Priority
RST 6.5
RST 5.5 o Lowest Priority
The priority of these interrupts is ordered as shown above. These interrupts have a
higher priority than the INTR.
TRAP (Input)
Trap interrupt is a nonmaskable restart interrupt. It is recognized at the same time as
INTR. It is unaffected by any mask or Interrupt Enable. It has the highest priority of
any interrupt.
RESET IN (Input)
Reset sets the Program Counter to zero and resets the Interrupt Enable and HLDA
flipflops. None of the other flags or registers (except the instruction register) are
affected The CPU is held in the reset condition as long as Reset is applied.
RESET OUT (Output)
Indicates CPlJ is being reset. Can be used as a system RESET. The signal is
synchronized to the processor clock.
X1, X2 (Input)
Crystal or R/C network connections to set the internal clock generator X1 can also be
an external clock input instead of a crystal. The input frequency is divided by 2 to
give the internal operating frequency.
CLK (Output)
Clock Output for use as a system clock when a crystal or R/ C network is used as an
input to the CPU. The period of CLK is twice the X1, X2 input period.
IO/M (Output)
IO/M indicates whether the Read/Write is to memory or l/O Tristated during Hold and
Halt modes.
SID (Input)
Serial input data line The data on this line is loaded into accumulator bit 7 whenever a
RIM instruction is executed.
SOD (output)
Serial output data line. The output SOD is set or reset as specified by the SIM
instruction.
Vcc
+5 volt supply.
Vss
Ground Reference.

4. 8085 Functional Description
The 8085A is a complete 8 bit parallel central processor. It requires a single +5 volt
supply. Its basic clock speed is 3 MHz thus improving on the present 8080's
performance with higher system speed. Also it is designed to fit into a minimum
system of three IC's: The CPU, a RAM/ IO, and a ROM or PROM/IO chip.
The 8085A uses a multiplexed Data Bus. The address is split between the higher 8bit
Address Bus and the lower 8bit Address/Data Bus. During the first cycle the address
is sent out. The lower 8bits are latched into the peripherals by the Address Latch
Enable (ALE). During the rest of the machine cycle the Data Bus is used for memory
or l/O data.
The 8085A provides RD, WR, and lO/Memory signals for bus control. An Interrupt
Acknowledge signal (INTA) is also provided. Hold, Ready, and all Interrupts are
synchronized. The 8085A also provides serial input data (SID) and serial output data
(SOD) lines for simple serial interface.
In addition to these features, the 8085A has three maskable, restart interrupts and one
non-maskable trap interrupt. The 8085A provides RD, WR and IO/M signals for Bus
control.
Status Information
Status information is directly available from the 8085A. ALE serves as a status strobe.
The status is partially encoded, and provides the user with advanced timing of the
type of bus transfer being done. IO/M cycle status signal is provided directly also.
Decoded So, S1 Carries the following status information:
HALT, WRITE, READ, FETCH
S1 can be interpreted as R/W in all bus transfers. In the 8085A the 8 LSB of address
are multiplexed with the data instead of status. The ALE line is used as a strobe to
enter the lower half of the address into the memory or peripheral address latch. This
also frees extra pins for expanded interrupt capability.
Interrupt and Serial l/O
The8085A has5 interrupt inputs: INTR, RST5.5, RST6.5, RST 7.5, and TRAP. INTR
is identical in function to the 8080 INT. Each of the three RESTART inputs, 5.5, 6.5.
7.5, has a programmable mask. TRAP is also a RESTART interrupt except it is nonmaskable.
The three RESTART interrupts cause the internal execution of RST (saving the
program counter in the stack and branching to the RESTART address) if the interrupts
are enabled and if the interrupt mask is not set. The non-maskable TRAP causes the
internal execution of a RST independent of the state of the interrupt enable or masks.
The interrupts are arranged in a fixed priority that determines which interrupt is to be
recognized if more than one is pending as follows: TRAP highest priority, RST 7.5,
RST 6.5, RST 5.5, INTR lowest priority This priority scheme does not take into
account the priority of a routine that was started by a higher priority interrupt. RST
5.5 can interrupt a RST 7.5 routine if the interrupts were re-enabled before the end of
the RST 7.5 routine. The TRAP interrupt is useful for catastrophic errors such as
power failure or bus error. The TRAP input is recognized just as any other interrupt
but has the highest priority. It is not affected by any flag or mask. The TRAP input is
both edge and level sensitive.
Basic System Timing
The 8085A has a multiplexed Data Bus. ALE is used as a strobe to sample the lower
8bits of address on the Data Bus. Figure 2 shows an instruction fetch, memory read
and l/ O write cycle (OUT). Note that during the l/O write and read cycle that the l/O
port address is copied on both the upper and lower half of the address. As in the 8080,
the READY line is used to extend the read and write pulse lengths so that the 8085A
can be used with slow memory. Hold causes the CPU to relingkuish the bus when it is
through with it by floating the Address and Data Buses.
System Interface
8085A family includes memory components, which are directly compatible to the
8085A CPU. For example, a system consisting of the three chips, 8085A, 8156, and
8355 will have the following features:
· 2K Bytes ROM
· 256 Bytes RAM
· 1 Timer/Counter
· 4 8bit l/O Ports
· 1 6bit l/O Port
· 4 Interrupt Levels
· Serial In/Serial Out Ports
In addition to standard l/O, the memory mapped I/O offers an efficient l/O addressing
technique. With this technique, an area of memory address space is assigned for l/O
address, thereby, using the memory address for I/O manipulation. The 8085A CPU
can also interface with the standard memory that does not have the multiplexed
address/data bus.

5. The 8085 Programming Model
In the previous tutorial we described the 8085 microprocessor registers in reference to
the internal data operations. The same information is repeated here briefly to provide
the continuity and the context to the instruction set and to enable the readers who
prefer to focus initially on the programming aspect of the microprocessor.
The 8085 programming model includes six registers, one accumulator, and one flag
register, as shown in Figure. In addition, it has two 16-bit registers: the stack pointer
and the program counter. They are described briefly as follows.
Registers
The 8085 has six general-purpose registers to store 8-bit data; these are identified as
B,C,D,E,H, and L as shown in the figure. They can be combined as register pairs -
BC, DE, and HL - to perform some 16-bit operations. The programmer can use these
registers to store or copy data into the registers by using data copy instructions.
Accumulator
The accumulator is an 8-bit register that is a part of arithmetic/logic unit (ALU). This
register is used to store 8-bit data and to perform arithmetic and logical operations.
The result of an operation is stored in the accumulator. The accumulator is also
identified as register A.
ACCUMULATOR A (8) FLAG REGISTER
B (8)
D (8)
H (8)
Stack Pointer (SP) (16)
Program Counter (PC) (16)
C (8)
E (8)
L (8)
Data Bus Address Bus
16 Lines unidirectional 8 Lines Bidirectional
Flags
The ALU includes five flip-flops, which are set or reset after an operation according
to data conditions of the result in the accumulator and other registers. They are called
Zero(Z), Carry (CY), Sign (S), Parity (P), and Auxiliary Carry (AC) flags; their bit
positions in the flag register are shown in the Figure below. The most commonly used
flags are Zero, Carry, and Sign. The microprocessor uses these flags to test data
conditions.
For example, after an addition of two numbers, if the sum in the accumulator id larger
than eight bits, the flip-flop uses to indicate a carry -- called the Carry flag (CY) -- is
set to one. When an arithmetic operation results in zero, the flip-flop called the
Zero(Z) flag is set to one. The first Figure shows an 8-bit register, called the flag
register, adjacent to the accumulator. However, it is not used as a register; five bit
positions out of eight are used to store the outputs of the five flip-flops. The flags are
stored in the 8-bit register so that the programmer can examine these flags (data
conditions) by accessing the register through an instruction.
These flags have critical importance in the decision-making process of the micro-
processor. The conditions (set or reset) of the flags are tested through the software
instructions. For example, the instruction JC (Jump on Carry) is implemented to
change the sequence of a program when CY flag is set. The thorough understanding
of flag is essential in writing assembly language programs.
Program Counter (PC)
This 16-bit register deals with sequencing the execution of instructions. This register
is a memory pointer. Memory locations have 16-bit addresses, and that is why this is a
16-bit register.
The microprocessor uses this register to sequence the execution of the instructions.
The function of the program counter is to point to the memory address from which the
next byte is to be fetched. When a byte (machine code) is being fetched, the program
counter is incremented by one to point to the next memory location
Stack Pointer (SP)
The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register used as a memory pointer. It points to a
memory location in R/W memory, called the stack. The beginning of the stack is
defined by loading 16-bit address in the stack pointer.
This programming model will be used in subsequent tutorials to examine how these
registers are affected after the execution of an instruction.
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
6. The 8085 Addressing Modes
The instructions MOV B, A or MVI A, 82H are to copy data from a source into a
destination. In these instructions the source can be a register, an input port, or an 8-bit
number (00H to FFH). Similarly, a destination can be a register or an output port. The
sources and destination are operands. The various formats for specifying operands are
called the ADDRESSING MODES. For 8085, they are:
1. Immediate addressing.
2. Register addressing.
3. Direct addressing.
4. Indirect addressing.
Immediate addressing
Data is present in the instruction. Load the immediate data to the destination provided.
Example: MVI R,data
Register addressing
Data is provided through the registers.
Example: MOV Rd, Rs
Direct addressing
Used to accept data from outside devices to store in the accumulator or send the data
stored in the accumulator to the outside device. Accept the data from the port 00H and
store them into the accumulator or Send the data from the accumulator to the port
01H.
Example: IN 00H or OUT 01H
Indirect Addressing
This means that the Effective Address is calculated by the processor. And the
contents of the address (and the one following) is used to form a second address. The
second address is where the data is stored. Note that this requires several memory
accesses; two accesses to retrieve the 16-bit address and a further access (or accesses)
to retrieve the data which is to be loaded into the register.
7. Instruction Set Classification
An instruction is a binary pattern designed inside a microprocessor to perform a
specific function. The entire group of instructions, called the instruction set,
determines what functions the microprocessor can perform. These instructions can be
classified into the following five functional categories: data transfer (copy)
operations, arithmetic operations, logical operations, branching operations, and
machine-control operations.
Data Transfer (Copy) Operations
This group of instructions copy data from a location called a source to another
location called a destination, without modifying the contents of the source. In
technical manuals, the term data transfer is used for this copying function. However,
the term transfer is misleading; it creates the impression that the contents of the
source are destroyed when, in fact, the contents are retained without any modification.
The various types of data transfer (copy) are listed below together with examples of
each type:
Types
Examples
1. Between Registers.
1. Copy the contents of the register B into
register D.
2. Specific data byte to a register or a
memory location.
2. Load register B with the data byte 32H.
3. Between a memory location and a
register.
3. From a memory location 2000H to register
B.
4. Between an I/O device and the
accumulator.
4.From an input keyboard to the
accumulator.
Arithmetic Operations
These instructions perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
increment, and decrement.
Addition - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register or the contents of a
memory location can be added to the contents of the accumulator and the sum is
stored in the accumulator. No two other 8-bit registers can be added directly (e.g., the
contents of register B cannot be added directly to the contents of the register C). The
instruction DAD is an exception; it adds 16-bit data directly in register pairs.
Subtraction - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or the contents of a
memory location can be subtracted from the contents of the accumulator and the
results stored in the accumulator. The subtraction is performed in 2's compliment, and
the results if negative, are expressed in 2's complement. No two other registers can be
subtracted directly.
Increment/Decrement - The 8-bit contents of a register or a memory location can be
incremented or decrement by 1. Similarly, the 16-bit contents of a register pair (such
as BC) can be incremented or decrement by 1. These increment and decrement
operations differ from addition and subtraction in an important way; i.e., they can be
performed in any one of the registers or in a memory location.
Logical Operations
These instructions perform various logical operations with the contents of the
accumulator.
AND, OR Exclusive-OR - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or of
a memory location can be logically ANDed, Ored, or Exclusive-ORed with the
contents of the accumulator. The results are stored in the accumulator.
Rotate- Each bit in the accumulator can be shifted either left or right to the next
position.
Compare- Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or a memory location can
be compared for equality, greater than, or less than, with the contents of the
accumulator.
Complement - The contents of the accumulator can be complemented. All 0s are
replaced by 1s and all 1s are replaced by 0s.
Branching Operations
This group of instructions alters the sequence of program execution either
conditionally or unconditionally.
Jump - Conditional jumps are an important aspect of the decision-making process in
the programming. These instructions test for a certain conditions (e.g., Zero or Carry
flag) and alter the program sequence when the condition is met. In addition, the
instruction set includes an instruction called unconditional jump.
Call, Return, and Restart - These instructions change the sequence of a program
either by calling a subroutine or returning from a subroutine. The conditional Call and
Return instructions also can test condition flags.
Machine Control Operations
These instructions control machine functions such as Halt, Interrupt, or do nothing.
The microprocessor operations related to data manipulation can be summarized in
four functions:
1. copying data
2. performing arithmetic operations
3. performing logical operations
4. testing for a given condition and alerting the program sequence
Some important aspects of the instruction set are noted below:
1. In data transfer, the contents of the source are not destroyed; only the contents of
the destination are changed. The data copy instructions do not affect the flags.
2. Arithmetic and Logical operations are performed with the contents of the
accumulator, and the results are stored in the accumulator (with some
expectations). The flags are affected according to the results.
3. Any register including the memory can be used for increment and decrement.
4. A program sequence can be changed either conditionally or by testing for a given
data condition.
8. Instruction Format
An instruction is a command to the microprocessor to perform a given task on a
specified data. Each instruction has two parts: one is task to be performed, called the
operation code (opcode), and the second is the data to be operated on, called the
operand. The operand (or data) can be specified in various ways. It may include 8-bit
(or 16-bit ) data, an internal register, a memory location, or 8-bit (or 16-bit) address.
In some instructions, the operand is implicit.
Instruction word size
The 8085 instruction set is classified into the following three groups according to
word size:
1. One-word or 1-byte instructions
2. Two-word or 2-byte instructions
3. Three-word or 3-byte instructions
In the 8085, "byte" and "word" are synonymous because it is an 8-bit microprocessor.
However, instructions are commonly referred to in terms of bytes rather than words.
One-Byte Instructions
A 1-byte instruction includes the opcode and operand in the same byte. Operand(s)
are internal register and are coded into the instruction.
For example:
Task Op
code
Operand Binary
Code
Hex
Code
Copy the contents of the accumulator in
the register C.
MOV C,A 0100 1111 4FH
Add the contents of register B to the
contents of the accumulator.
ADD B 1000 0000 80H
Invert (compliment) each bit in the
accumulator.
CMA 0010 1111 2FH
These instructions are 1-byte instructions performing three different tasks. In the first
instruction, both operand registers are specified. In the second instruction, the operand
B is specified and the accumulator is assumed. Similarly, in the third instruction, the
accumulator is assumed to be the implicit operand. These instructions are stored in 8-
bit binary format in memory; each requires one memory location.
MOV rd, rs
rd <-- rs copies contents of rs into rd.
Coded as 01 ddd sss where ddd is a code for one of the 7 general registers which is
the destination of the data, sss is the code of the source register.
Example: MOV A,B
Coded as 01111000 = 78H = 170 octal (octal was used extensively in instruction
design of such processors).
ADD r
A <-- A + r
Two-Byte Instructions
In a two-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the operation code and the second
byte specifies the operand. Source operand is a data byte immediately following the
opcode. For example:
Task Opcode Operand Binary
Code
Hex Code
Load an 8-bit data
byte in the
accumulator.
MVI A, Data 3E
Data
First Byte
Second Byte
Assume that the data byte is 32H. The assembly language instruction is written as
Mnemonics Hex code
MVI A, 32H 3E 32H
The instruction would require two memory locations to store in memory.
MVI r,data
r <-- data
Example: MVI A,30H coded as 3EH 30H as two contiguous bytes. This is an
example of immediate addressing.
ADI data
A <-- A + data
OUT port
0011 1110
DATA
where port is an 8-bit device address. (Port) <-- A. Since the byte is not the data but
points directly to where it is located this is called direct addressing.
Three-Byte Instructions
In a three-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the opcode, and the following two
bytes specify the 16-bit address. Note that the second byte is the low-order address
and the third byte is the high-order address.
opcode + data byte + data byte
For example:
Task Opcode Operand Binary code Hex Code
Transfer the
program
sequence to
the memory
location
2085H.
JMP 2085H C3
85
20
First byte
Second Byte
Third Byte
This instruction would require three memory locations to store in memory.
Three byte instructions - opcode + data byte + data byte
LXI rp, data16
rp is one of the pairs of registers BC, DE, HL used as 16-bit registers. The two data
bytes are 16-bit data in L H order of significance.
rp <-- data16
Example:
LXI H,0520H coded as 21H 20H 50H in three bytes. This is also immediate
addressing.
LDA addr
A <-- (addr) Addr is a 16-bit address in L H order. Example: LDA 2134H coded as
3AH 34H 21H. This is also an example of direct addressing.
9. Sample Programs
Write an assembly program to add two numbers
Program
MVI D, 8BH
MVI C, 6FH
MOV A, C
1100 0011
1000 0101
0010 0000
ADD D
OUT PORT1
HLT
Write an assembly program to multiply a number by 8
Program
MVI A, 30H
RRC
RRC
RRC
OUT PORT1
HLT
Write an assembly program to find greatest between two numbers
Program
MVI B, 30H
MVI C, 40H
MOV A, B
CMP C
JZ EQU
JC GRT
OUT PORT1
HLT
EQU: MVI A, 01H
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STUDY NOTES-Networking

2008-09-30T22:13:00.000-07:00

Networking

Network is an integrated communication system where different user can exchange data or message.

Computer Network:

Our computer network is inter-connection of different individual computer device using hardware and software resource for the exchanging data or information.

Features of computer network:

1). Line configuration 2. Networking topology 3). Network category 4). Internetworking

5) Transmission media.

Line configuration:

It denotes the types of connection required between the devices for communication. These can be of two fundamental types.

(a) Point- to- point:- These means there is a dedicated line between a particular pair of device.

b)Multi –point: - this means using a common line (BUS). We can connect multiple devices for there inter communication

Network topology:-

Means categorizing network ware to geographical pattern

Mesh denotes direct connection between every individual device it there are n-devices we required N(N-1)/2 connection.

In Bus topology a carrier bus as a communication line connects different devices

In star topology a server acts as a center point to connected different devices.

It in star network every device is connected to left and right neighbour only it forms a ring network.

In tree topology servers are connected to devices using a particular hierarchical manner.

Network category:- Network can be categories according to the area covers by the network. The categories are as follows.

1) Local area network 2) Metropolitan area network 3)Wide area network 4)Global area network.

LAN:- It is a localized network system which comprises of either a small area or a building etc. It consists of a server, which is connected to set of nodes via and electronic device called HUB. Any message or data from server is related the nodes with specific nodes address. The connection is mostly done by using copper cable.

MAN:- different LAN servers in metropolitan city can be inter connected using a master server to create a MAN. These type of network spreads over a city and the connection is done mainly through cables of some times using wireless technology.

WAN:- it is inter city network system to connect different city servers using a master server such network uses connection oriented of connection less technology for connecting different devices and servers. Normally, WAN consist of a single country or a set of country eg. Indian railway reservation system.

GAN:- Inter connecting different WAN creates a globalised network. Which may spread over the globe. Such network mostly uses satellite technology and also connection-oriented technology to perform inter communication. One of the popular examples of such network to Internet.

Transmission Mode:- Transmission mode determines the direction of data flow in case of a communication system.

1) Simplex mode: These systems provides ones specific device to send data and mother specific device to receive data ex. T.V.

2) Half duplex mode:- Here data can flow in both direction but in one specific direction at a time. Ex. Walkie talkie.

3) Full duplex mode:- here data can flow in both direction simultaneously eg. Telephone.

Inter networking:- different network when inter connected either locally or in a wide area, the conception is called internetworking. So, basically network - to – network integration using wireless or wire technology creates Internetwork. Eg. BSNL.

OSI [Open system interconnection]: - ISO has proposed a standard network interfacing software model, for intercommunication between different devices. Such software model is called OSI model. OSI model is a set of specification about standard network software.

1. Application layer 2. presentation layer 3. session layer 4. transport layer 5. network layer 6. data link layer 7. physical layer

In these layer structure lower layer provides basic circuits to its immediate upper layer and the interaction between layers is level by level.

PHYSICAL LAYER: these layer provides specification about physical characteristics like. Voltage to be used, type of signal, how bits will be convert, type of carrier including hardware characteristics are define in these layer.

Data link layer: These layer is responsible for converting signal pattern to its equivalent meaningful binary format to represent data. These includes representation of voltage pattern, specification indicating which voltage represent 1 or which represent o.

(1) Inter-conversion from signal pattern to data form and viceversa.

(2) To check is the send data has been actually received on the receiver side, These layer perform error control activity.

(3) To match the speed of senders transmission with that of receiver. These layer uses flow control mechanism, otherwise there is a possibility of data loss.

NIC: Network interface card

(4) For every machine in a network, there exists two types of address to identify the machine.

(a) physical address denotes a particular electronic circuit or chip no, which is called network interface card, which is a circuit for enabling a machine connected to a network.

(b) When a machine is connected to a server. The server provides local address logical address for a particular node or client.

Such addressing in a network is responsibility of there layer.

Network layer: These layer is responsible for mode-to-node delivery of data packet for transmission of data. The basic function are as follows:

(i) It provides another logical address where data packet is crossing a country or in case of international transmission system.

(ii) These layer to decides cost and time optimized route for transporting data over the network.

Transport layer: These layer responsible for end-to-end delivery of data packet in a network. The basic functions are as follows:

(i) When large amount(vol) of data is required to be transmitted, it is broken up into small parts or pieces, individual piece are transmitted individually. On the receiver side the pieces are to be rearranged to make out original data. These is a vital responsibility of these layer.

(ii) It performs flow control and error control to avoid data loss in case of end-to-end communication.

(iii) For communication of data connection protocol is used before actual communication. The protocol includes connection establishment data transfer and connection termination. All these are perform by transport layer.

Session Layer: These layer performs same basic transmission activity as follows:

(i) It controls process-to-process communication in a network. A process is identified by service access point address(SAP), which is a running programmed.

(ii) It keeps synchronization points for a long data transmission process to keep track of last successful transmission of data packet.

Presentation Layer: These layer performs manipulation of the content of data for over coming different language problem or to introduce data security.

The basic function are as follows:

(i) Different user may use local language, which is must compatible with another user. These layer converts data contents to a global format, transport formatted data over the network, and converts back to local format on the receivers .

(ii) transmitted data may be trapped or used by any unauthorized user which is a problem for data security. Network uses enayption description mechanism to convert data to meaningless form, transmit it over the line and convert back in the receivers end. These mechanism is supported by these layer.

Application Layer: These layer enables human user to access network. It provide a software called network browser, which is used to access a particular network site. Also, the layer provides basic facilities which are as follows:

(i) e-mail: These is a mail delivery service by which user can send or receive mails.

(ii) FTAM: stands for file transfer access management. These is a file handling service to transmit electronic files.

Signal: Signal is a kind of electro- magnetic wave or pattern, which depends on the type of carrier used.

Transmission medium: transmission medium are communication system carriers, which transport signal from sender to receiver device. It can be characterized in two types:

Guided medium: Gm uses physical conducting wires to transmit signals. It is of three types.

(a) Twisted pair wire(b) co-axial cable(c) optical fibre/Fibre optic cable

Twisted pair wire consists of two copper insulated wires would around each other. Twisted pair wire are of two types:

(i) Shielded Twisted pair wire(STP): STP cable has a mesh covering over the twisted pair wires. TP without the outer covering is unshielded.

(j) Unshielded medium: when multiple twisted pair wire are kept transmitted signals can create electric magnetic interreference giving rise to unwanted energy or voltage called cross-talk. These can be avoids by using shielded twisted wire pair.

Co-oxial cable: Co-oxial cable consists of a set of twisted pair wire around a central axis. It is used to carry high values of signal using different frequency. Ex: cable(TV)

Two types:

(1) base band cable: These type of cables carry digital signal will less frequency level.

(2) Broad-band: It carries analog signal with higher frequency.

Fibre-Optic cable: It uses glass medium to transmit signals in the form of light wave. Actually, optical source in used to generate light, the cable is surrounded by rarer glass medium, so that using reflection entire light wave is kept inside the medium and propagated.

Two type:

(1) single mode fibre: uses single light source.

(2) Multi mode fibre: uses multiple light source.

Unguided medium: Uses wireless communication to transmit signals using air medium.

Radio wave communication: These are low frequency signal which can bend when it faces curvature.

Types of RW transmission:

(a) surface propagation: It are low frequency signals travels close to earth surface, the signal can propagate ignoring curvature of the surface.

(b) Tropospheric Propagation: there radio waves are directed toward tropospheric layer and reflected back to the receiving side.

In these case the transmission is line-of-sight type bicog bending is not allow.

(c) Ionospheric propagation: radio waves are transmitted upword, reflected by ionospheric and comes done in and there part of the earth surface.

(d) Space Propagation: These uses satellite communication where gio-stationary satellite are used to reflect back signals down to the earth surface.

Micro-wave communication: Micro-wave is a high frequency electro-magnetic signal which is mostly used in satellite communication.

Geo-stationary satellite are used to accept uploaded signals using uplink frequency and reflect back downloaded signal with downlink frequency.

Transmitter (for uploading) and receiver (for down loading) are faintly available in the form of transceiver medium used by sender or receiver device.

Multiplexing: It is an hardware technique to combine more than one simple signal to form a compo rite carrier signal to be transmitted over network channel.

De-Multiplexing is the reverse process to filter out original simple signal from the comporite carriers on the receiving side.

FDM(Frequnecy Division multiplexing): bandwidth of a network channel: denotes different value in H2 between highest supported frequency range and lowest supported frequency range.

FDM is a technique of combining signal components into one comporite signal, when the channel Bandwidth is higher than the total combine signal bandwidth. So, using signal network channel it is possible to transport set of signal by using a multiplexes hardware.

WDM(wave Division Multiplexing): When optical signal carriers is used to transmit signal as light wave, WDM is used.

These includes combining multiple light signal into one compo rite form using an optical prison, which derives compo rite light wave.

These light wave is transported to receiving side, which de- multiplexes the received signal into individual light waves using another optical prison.

TDM(Time Division Multiplexing):

Synchronous TDM: Here each Host-Machine(sender) is given a fined time-slot, within which the machine can send data over a common network channel TDM multiplexer switches between machine to machine in round robin manner depending on time slot.

Disadvantage:(1) It data transmission is not finish within the time slot for a particular sender, it has to wait before the next chance comes up. It these occurs for many sender will increase system overrate, making system slow.

(2)It sender has nothing to transmit, its time slot is wasted.

Asynchronous Tdm: In asynchronous Tdm. We consider out of n sender not all sender will transmit at the same time. So, no. of time slot is less than n Tdm multiplexer allocate time slot to sender device as per demand.

Advantage: (1) These procedure avoids wastage of time slot and idleness of network channel.

HDLC: (High level data link control): These is a bit oricuted full duplex protocol which is used in a multipoint communication system.

(a) Primary Device- It has right to send data.

(b) Secondary device- it has the right to received data.

It is a protocol to present arising errors. It determines where a better msg starts & ends & what part of the msg is included in the CRC. It uses but stuffing for data transferring. Bit stuffing is the method with the help of this are can rectify the ambiguity at data frame if sub string of data matches with the flog bit. Under this mechanism the system will insert a after consecutive five awes. It will malice impossible be find out the flog bit unique.

Project802:IEEE proposed a modification of OSI model by dividing data link layer into two section as action.

(a) Logical link control

(b) Medium access control

These model is called project802 which is mainly used in local area network.

Networking & Internetworking Device:

Networking Device are mostly required in inter-mediate stages in local networking.

Networking Device:

Repeater, Bridge

Internetworking device are mostly required in connecting internal network.

Inter-networking:

Router, gateway

Repeater: It is a connecting device. Which work at physical layer, to regenerate signal strength in case of long distance communication repeater should be install at some distance interval so that original signal can be transported to the receiver. It acts as a regenerate to simplify signal and cut off the noise.

BridgeLConnection of lan)

Bridge is a connecting device which is mainly used to connect Lans. It acts as a repeater when data packet belongs to a neighbouring lan otherwise it can reside destination lan by interacting with other bridges.

Bridge work in data link layer and so it can recognize data link layer address of the transmitted.

Bridge: 1) Simple bridge2) transparent bridge

Simple Bridge: It is a manually operation device where neighboring Lan information are to the entered by an operation Lan logs into network also any division or updation of network device is to the manipulated by an operation.

Transparent Bridge: (It initially has no knowledge about its neighbors when it logs a network by watching different incoming data packet address) it gradually bits it address table.These type of address generation for neighboures is called backwared learning. So in future it will be able to deliver packets to it neighboring Lan.

Router: It is an inter networking device which works in the network layer. Its basic purpose is to route data packets to there destination using network layer address. It uses routing algorithms to decide ideal path so that the packet can reach its destination efficiently. It Router finds the destination address is its neighbours, it simply acts as a bridge.

Router:1) single protocol router2) Multiple protocol router 3) Brouter bridge router.

Single protocol Router: These router can connects distinguish networks which uses similar protocol.

Multiple protocol Router: It can connect different network with variable protocol.

Brouter: It is a combined functionality of a bridge and a Router which is mostly multi protocol Router.

Routing Algorithms: 1) Distance vector Routing: In these algorithm each router maintain a distance vector table which is a table of address for its neighbouring network and routers. All the router are mesh connected so that each router can final several routers to send packet.

The basic activity: 1) Router maintains knowledge about its neighbours.

2) It exchanges information periodically with others which are directly connected.

3) Every router updates its memory table if there is some changes in the network.

4) Link state Routing: In these algorithm every router can share a common data base which stores information abt. Network. The routers are maintaining information about their locality and they also exchange these information with other routers.

The basic activities are:1) The Router keep knowledge about its neighbouring network.

2) Every Router stores its neighbourhood information in UNK state database.

3)Router shares information with other routers only there is change in network.

Routing Process: 1) Adaptive Routing: It means deciding router depending on the present networking condition.

2) Non-Adaptive Routing: It uses fined router which doesnot depends on networking condition.

Gate way: It is an advanced router device which operates in all layers of the OSI interface. It can convert one network protocol to another in case of network to network communication. The basic functions are as follows.

a) It can act as a router.

b) It can convert one network protocol to another.

c) It can send packets to any external network.

d) Network layer protocol:1)ARP 2) RARP 3) ICMP 4)IGMP

ARP: (Address Resolution Protocol) It is a protocol used to find physical address of the host when its internet address is known. In these protocol if a host sends query packet to its server requesting physical address table and response with device address.

RARP: (Reverse ARP) It is a protocol which is used to find internet address of the host when the physical address is known. Here host request it server to send its internet address server find the address and send response.

ICMP: (Internet control Message protocol) It is a protocol used to provides feedback incase of failure in delivery of data packet by any device. In such case the failing device reports back to the predecessor and request for retransmission.

IGMP: (Internet group Message protocol) It is a message bootong protocol where sender can use a) Unicasting- sending message to are receiver.

b) Multicasting: sending message to group of receiver.

c) Broad casting: Sending message to all.

Sonet: (synchronous optical network)It is an example of packet switching optical network which transmits digital data in optical form sonnet uses a special signal called STS which is a high-speed optical signal.

Sonnet device:

1) STS multiplex]

2) STS regenerate

3) STS adol/drop multiplex

STS multiplex: Multiplex takes digital signal uses optical source to generate light wave, converts digital to optical form de-multiplexer perform weres activity.

STS Regenerate: It is use to amplify STS signal for transmission over network.

ADD/Drp mul: These is a foltering device which simple optical signal from a composite.

Sonet layer:1) palk layer- (transport)2) line layer(network)3) section layer(data link)4) photomic layer(physical)

Photomic layer: These is the bottom most layer which provides physical specification about light particle fibre optic channel type of multiplexer used etc.

Line layer: These layer is responsible for resoursing source of destination address and the type of communication channel used.

Palk layer: These layer is responsible transferring digital to optical or digital signal conversion using mux/demux.

Also it is responsible for routing signal user deal router.

X.25:It is an example of packet switching wide area network (WAN) which uses virtual circuite approach tp packet switching.

Physical layer: In these the network uses a protocol called X.21 which consists with specification signal characteristics and grouping of width.

Frame layer: These layer consists construction of frame or packet format using a protocol LAPB (link_Access_Protocol_Balanced) Also, it is responsible for error control and flow control for delivery of data packet.

Frame types: 1) I- frame (Information frame) It carries information about network transport protocol.

5) S- frame(supervisory frame) It carries information about network management.

6) U-frame(Uses frame) It carries information about user data.

Packet layer: These layer is responsible for transporting data packet using a protocol called PLP(packet layer protocol) The protocol uses packet switching with connection establishment virtual circuit creation data transfer connection termination. Each packet contains information about the virtual circuit used.

Q PSK:( Quadrature PSK) IT varies phase change considering for states as O0, Do0 so that use can have four values in the variation of phase.

DISK(Differential PSK) It mixs variation of bit pattern representing phase change in four different states.

STUDY NOTES-UNIX

2008-09-30T22:08:00.000-07:00

UNIX

What is process?

Process is program in execution. A program is an passive entity where as process is an active entity.

Process step:

New: When a process is being created.

Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor.

Runing Step:Instruction are being execution.

Suspend: The process is waiting for sum event to take place.

Terminal: The process has finished execution.

Sheduler: Shedule are of there types:1) Long term scheduler(job scheduler)

2) mid term scheduler(medium term)2) sort term scheduler(cpu scheduler)

Query diagram representation of process scheduling:-

Define type of scheduling algorithms:-first come first.

Shortest job first scheduling:-

Priority best scheduling:-

Multi level queses with fid back scheduling:-

Round Robin scheduling:-

Unix architecture:- Unix has a layer architecture with major separable parts the karnel as system program.

The components of unix webs are:1) karnel 2) shell 3)command. Utilities at for the one is application.

Karnel: karnel is the heart of the operating system. All the components request the karnel for the required service when the system is booted. The karnel is read into memory. It resides in the memory as long as the system is running.

The function and services of the karnel:

1) File management and security2) I/O services 3) process scheduling and management.4) System accounting. 5) memory management 6) Interupt an error handling 7)data and ti,e services.

2) SHELL: SHELL is the command interpreter. The interface between the provide a while to separate user all task from is another why the karnel maintains an unified over all control.

Directory structure:-

Directory:-

/ Slace: It is called the root directory. It is the superb login directory.

Purpose:

/ bin: It contents essential unix utilities that the user can use. It is usually contents binery files. A binary file is the product of a compile sees code source program.

Directory:

/dev: It is device directory where all device files are store. It contents a file for each device attach on the network.

Purpose:-

/etc:This directory contents various administration utilities which other special system file that as used by the system at the booting time.

Directory:-

/tmp:- It is the dustbin of the unix system. Files with sort light span are usually store or redirected here.

Purpose:

/usr:- This directory store home directory from all user.

What is the job of unix command:-1) Navigated with the file system.

2)all ordinary file operation 3) delling with file attributes

Different switch of LS:-

Option Meaning

-X:- It display multi column instead of a long system.

LS-F:- It marks executable which * and directories with slace(/).

-r:- sorts the file in revers order.

-R:- Provides recursive listing of all subdirectories and files in a

directory,

-a:- This list all files including dot(double) and those file beginning

with a dot(.).

-l:- It provides long listing by showing seven attributes of each file.

LS-d:- It force listing of directories.

-t:- sorts on modification time.

-u:- sorts on last access time.

-i shows I node number along with file name.

pwd- display present working directory.

Command:- first and four most from requires two sorted file as its argument. It return lines commons in both file, lines unix in second file, lines unix in the first file.

What is process management?

Process management:- a program is an executable file and a process is an instant of the program in execution karnel recognized of process by a number which is called process identification.

Process identification:-

Job of karnel:- management of processes is the responsibility of the karnel. The karnel thus scheduling called the processes.

The karnel frequently requires to store active processes in the swap of the disk before calling them again for running. The karnel uses to major data structure to mentain all information related with the process. These are called process table; U- area(details of subsequent section). The pid is allocated by the karnel automatically when a process is born.

Process identification:-

1) Process ID(pid):- Every process has a every no assign by the karnel called pid. It is an integer in the range(0 to 30,000). This is the no. of entire done is process table.

The pid of the process can be listed by unix command like’ps’ and also by using the system called get pid:

There are usually 31 special process in almost all variance of unix system. These are called swapper paged man enit.

The process with pid 0 is spall day swapper or scheduler which is the first process for any unix system. It is the only process not created the fort system called. The pid of init process is ‘1’. This is the parent of all ‘processes’.

In virtual memory implementation of unix a process with pid’2’ is called the page deaman.

2) Parent process ID:- Every process has a parent process and a ‘ppid’ no. corresponding to the process all the processes share of parent child relationship. The karnel assign this parent process ‘ID’. When a new process is created. We can of tain the value of ‘ppid’ using a unix command ps.F. or by a system called’get ppid’. (int get ppid)

3) Real user ID:- Each process is assigned an owner or user an each user belongs to a group.

A positive int. called user. This is usually done through shell script which is written for adding a new user and executed by the system administrator. A process can obtain the real user id of a user by a system called ‘get pid’. [ un sign short get id]. The file /etc/psswd.

Maintain the mapping between login names and numeric user ID.

User ID:- By which unix system uses to recognized a user.

Real group ID:- Each user belongs to a group. There fore it is assigned a group ID the system called by which we can find the real group (ID is unsigned short get pid); all the group ID are placed in of fine called /etc / group. This file mentain the mapping between name and numeric group ID.

Process operation:-1) process creation 2) process termination 3)process group

1)process creation:- A running process executes a system called ‘fork’ to create new process. The newly created process is called ‘child process’. It get’s a’ O’ return value from a fork system call and its pid is returned to its parent.

2)process termination:- A unix process may terminate by using a system called exit of make waited for some time by a system called wait or can be fully terminated by a system called init.

3)Process group:- Process an a unix system are identified by a unique id no. though some times the system identifies processes by group. The ‘set grp’ is the system called to get the value of the group process ID ‘intset grp’.

Login process:- A login process involved several program whose action are control by configuration files like /etc / tty tab or /etc /ttys, for diff. version of unix. The system login process is depited as follows:-

Booting process:-

1) The init process initiated all system stater. It is responsible for the birth of all subsequent process it is also responsible fror spawning a process ‘get tty’ on every terminal port that ios switch on in the /etc /ttys. It is ‘get tty’ that sets the ports of initial characteristics like speed parity and provides a login prompt on the screen.

2) A user entire login name at ‘getttys’ prompt.

3) Gettty then proceeds to execute the login program usually in /bin/ login. With user login name as argument.

4) Login then print the msg of the day from usually prompt in from /etc /motd (msg oriented text document) file. After validating the password.

5) Login then executes a shell program and set spawn shell and initialized the environment variable. The shell executes the appropriate stater file (in bourn shell profile)

6) The shell prints the unix prompt and waits for the input.

7) Suppose a user entire a grep command executes shell forks its copy at exact the gerp program if it is available of find on the specified ‘PATH’.

8) When the user logs out control return to init which waits up and spawn a new getty on the terminal port. The init process forks a copy of it self and then each ‘child processes’ exacts the /etc / getty prg.

SONG LINK-INDIAN POP

2008-09-30T09:29:00.000-07:00

DJ Krezy - Soul Vibes 4 - Abhi Nahin Aana
Mika Singh - Party Special
DJ Widjei - Zomer Kriebels
Aneek Dhar - Khwaishein
DJ Faya - I Love Hindi Eclectic
War Of The DJs I
War Of The DJs II
War Of The DJs III
DJ Phantom - Summer Jam
Amit Tandon - Tanha (Lonely At Heart)
Babbu Mann - Hashar
Rabbi Shergill - Avengi Ja Nahin
Dj Karma - Extra Soul (2008)
DJ Jairam - Qplay Attraction 2nd Mission

SONGS LINK-PAKISTHANI ALBUM

2008-09-30T09:25:00.000-07:00

Khawar Jawad - Maula
ARY Digital OST
Tulsi Songs - Full Collection
Ali Azmat - Klashinfolk
Azadi
Najam Sheraz (2008)
Zeb - Chup
Nouman Khalid - Tanhai
Salman Alvi - Tahayyur
Shahzad Roy - Qismat Apnay Haath Mein
Ahmed Jehanzeb - Laut Aao
Sajjad Ali - Chahar Balish
Abida Parveen - Raqs-E-Bismil
Strings - Koi Anay Wala Hai
Meri Kahani - Atif Aslam (High Quality)
Charkha - Rahat Fateh Ali Khan
Jal - Bond
Ali Haider - Jaanay Do
Rahim Shah - Chercha
Saleem Javed - Dosti
Usman Shani - Jaisay Jaantay Nahi
Hadiqa Kiyani - Rough Cut
GEO Tv Drama OST Songs
ARY Digital Drama OST Songs
Pakistani Darama OST Collection 1

SONG LINK-NEW HINDI SONGS

2008-09-30T09:23:00.000-07:00

EMI
Drona
Horn Ok Pleassss
Hari Puttar
Hello
Karzzzz Vol. 1
Karzzzz Vol. 2
Royal Utsav
Fashion
A Wednesday
Ek Vivaah... Aisa Bhi
Ishq Ho Gaya Mamu
Kidnap
Saas Bahu Aur Sensex
Welcome To Sajjanpur
Ru-Ba-Ru
Tahaan
1920
Chamku
C Kkompany
Contract
God Tussi Great Ho
Hijack
Hum Phirr Milein Na Milein
Maan Gaye Mughal-E-Azam
Mukhbiir
Zindagi Tere Naam
Bachna Ae Haseeno
Deshdrohi
Rock On
Singh is Kinng
Via Darjeeling
Good Luck
Mission Istaanbul
DJ Krezy - Soul Vibes 4 - Abhi Nahin Aana
Mika Singh - Party Special
DJ Widjei - Zomer Kriebels
Aneek Dhar - Khwaishein
DJ Faya - I Love Hindi Eclectic
War Of The DJs I
War Of The DJs II
War Of The DJs III
DJ Phantom - Summer Jam
Amit Tandon - Tanha (Lonely At Heart)
Babbu Mann - Hashar
Rabbi Shergill - Avengi Ja Nahin
Dj Karma - Extra Soul (2008)
DJ Jairam - Qplay Attraction 2nd Mission

SONG LINK-- Drona (2008)

2008-09-30T09:03:00.000-07:00

Indian Movies - Drona (2008)
Artist: Indian MoviesAlbum: Drona (2008)

Bandagi - Sunidhi Chauhan & Roop Kumar Rathod @ Mp3HunGama

Times Played 1675 Add Lyrics
Drona - Dhruv @ Mp3HunGama

Times Played 2010 Add Lyrics
Drona Redux - Sunidhi Chauhan @ Mp3HunGama

Times Played 1223 Add Lyrics
Khushi - Shaan @ Mp3HunGama

Times Played 1216 Add Lyrics
Nanhe Nanhe - Sadhana Sargam @ Mp3HunGama

Times Played 973 Add Lyrics
Oop Cha (Fare Play Mix) - Sunidhi Chauhan @ Mp3HunGama

Times Played 885 Add Lyrics
Oop Cha - Sunidhi Chauhan @ Mp3HunGama

Times Played 1172 Add Lyrics

SONGS LINK -Golmaal Returns

2008-09-30T08:55:00.000-07:00

Golmaal Returns
Actors : Ajay Devgan, Arshad Warsi, Kareena Kapoor, Shreyas Talpade, Tusshar Kapoor, Amrita Arora, Celina Jaitley & Ram KapoorYear : 2008Album Rating : * * * * *

Tha Kar Ke
Real Player :: RM Format

Vacancy
Real Player :: RM Format
Tu Saala
Real Player :: RM Format

Meow
Real Player :: RM Format
Meow - English Version
Real Player :: RM Format

Vacnacy - Kilogram Mix
Real Player :: RM Format
Tha Kar Ke - Remix
Real Player :: RM Format

Meow - Remix
Real Player :: RM Format
Tu Saala - Remix
Real Player :: RM Format

Golmaal
Real Player :: RM Format
Aage Peeche
Real Player :: RM Format

Golmaal
Real Player :: RM Format
Golmaal - Remix
Real Player :: RM Format

Rehja Re - Remix
Real Player :: RM Format
Golmaal - Remix
Real Player :: RM Format

SOFTWARE LINK-Tune Up Utilitites 2008 - with keymaker

2008-09-30T08:53:00.000-07:00

Tune Up Utilitites 2008 - with keymakerhttp://soft-best.net/en/detail/tuneup_utilities_2008_707992_final/

ANTIVIRUS

2008-09-30T08:52:00.000-07:00

Bit defender total security 2008BitDefender Total Security 2008 provides the ultimate proactive protection for your PCs.It combines state of the art protection against viruses, spyware, hackers, spam and other Internet security threats. Moreover, its system maintenanceand PC backup tools keep your PC running fast and protected from data loss.Top featuresState of the art proactive protection against new virusesProtects against phishing attacks by filtering all accessed web pages for fraud attemptsHelps prevent unauthorized access to your Wi-Fi networkNewadaptive engines detect & block spam faster and more reliably than everParental control blocks access to inappropriate websites and e-mailAutomatedincremental backup backup copies your data to local or removable drives for safekeepingTune-up module improves PC performance .http://rs173tg.rapidshare.com/files/54204916/BitDefender_Total_Security_2008_Build_11.0.9.rar

SOFTWARE LINK-IP ADDRESS

2008-09-30T08:49:00.000-07:00

App
Hide IP Next Generation v1.26
Today
ModernForums.co
App
Hide IP Next Generation 1.26
Today
WarezVB
App
hide ip next generation 1.26
09/29
dlforum.org
App
hide ip next generation 1.26
09/29
RENSLT
Script
IP Board v2.3.4 Nulled
09/28
WarezVB
App
Hide IP Platinum 4.02
09/28
W-47.com
App
Windows XP SP3 TCP/ IP Patcher
09/27
Acution BIZ
App
Hide Your IP Address 1.0
09/27
WarezBond
App
Proxyshell Hide IP 2.4.6.0
09/25
SWtim.org
App
Hide Your IP Address 1.0
09/24
gat dat
App
Hide Your IP Address v.1.0
09/23
TurboDDL
App
IP Locator 2008 (Portable)
09/23
T.R.U.Forums
App
Easy-Hide-IP v1.6
09/22
Downeach
App
IP Changer 2.2 - Final
09/22
warezcandy
App
Hide My IP v2008
09/21
NoDiceWarez
App
Hide IP Platinum v4.02
09/21
DeluxeWarez
App
Easy Hide IP v1.3
09/21
DDLByte
App
IP Changer 2.2 - Final
09/20
OmniDDL
App
Hide Your IP Address v.1.0
09/20
Kurds Portal
App
Hide My IP 2008
09/20
EuroDDL
App
Invisible IP Map v2.7
09/20
n1 Soft
App
Hide IP Platinum 4.5.02
09/19
Start DDL
App
Hide IP Platinum 4.2
09/19
EuroDDL
App
Windows XP (SP3) TCP/IP Patcher
09/18
DownArchive
App
Windows XP SP3 TCP/ IP Patcher
09/18
RS Downloads
Other
Windows XP (SP3) TCP/IP Patcher
09/18
D.S Forums
App
PlusTech IP Changer 2.0
09/17
Smoothsoft
App
Hide IP NG 1.34
09/17
AIOStop
App
IP Locator 2008 (Portable)
09/17
my-warez
App
Easy Hide IP 1.6
09/17
^
App
Hide IP Next Generation 1.26
09/17
Legendarydevils
App
Hide My IP 2008
09/16
3magin8.com
App
IP Changer 2.2
09/16
Fijoz
App
Neo IP Tracer 3.25 pro
09/16
The-EveryThingS
Ebook
Prentice hall - ip in wireless networks
09/16
FDL4ALL

SOFTWARE LINK-PCB

2008-09-30T08:48:00.000-07:00

App
PCB Wizard 3.5 Pro
09/17
AIOStop
Movie
Police Academy 1- 7 iNT XViD-PCB
07/09
Warez Nova
App
BluePrint-PCB 1.8.0.336
07/06
CentralDLC
App
BluePrint-PCB 1.8.0.336
07/05
JanuskieZ
App
BluePrint-PCB 1.8.0.334
06/20
DownArchive
App
BluePrint-PCB 1.8.0.334
06/19
CentralDLC
App
Cadsoft Eagle PCB Layout Editor v5.0.0
05/31
WarezFantom

SOFTWARE LINK-MAP

2008-09-28T01:32:00.001-07:00

App
Garmin Map Update V10 (2009)
09/24
WzForum
App
Invisible IP Map v2.7
09/20
n1 Soft
Script
Google Site Map Maker
09/07
mafiaphp
App
3D World Map - 2.1 (portable)
09/06
HitzWarez
App
Invisible Ip Map V2.7
09/01
Waz-Warez
App
Map Point 2009
09/01
Hoaxfree.com
App
AutoCAD Map 3D 2009 Surveying Tools
09/01
All You Wanna
Other
Geographical Map Of All The World
08/30
WarezRocker
App
Imagination Image Map Editor v6.2.0.0
08/23
2600Warez
App
Garmin Map Update 2009 10.0
08/21
DDL Friction
App
Imagination Image Map Editor v6.2.0.0
08/18
CrackedSerial
App
Imagination Image Map Editor v6.2.0.0
08/18
Warez Nova
App
3D World Map 2.1
08/15
MobileGangs
App
Google Site Map Maker
08/14
3-Media
App
Google Site Map Maker 2009
08/11
SKDown.Net
App
WaSP Map Editor v9.0
08/03
WarezHack
App
Google Earth Pro Final 4.2.0205.5730 and Map Packs
07/23
XsX
App
Garmin Map Update 2009 V10
07/18
RENSLT
App
DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Map 2.00
07/14
CentralDLC
App
TomTom 8 Italia 805.1801 Map
07/08
DDLArea.com
App
Portable 3D World Map v.2.1
07/08
WarezStreet
App
Portable 3D World Map v.2.1
07/07
Link Wizards
App
Navigon Mobile Navigator 6.0 Europe Map
06/24
DDL43
App
Map for iGO Way 2006 Plus and MioMap 3.2 3.3
06/22
Hot Downloads
App
Invisible IP Map v2.7
06/21
FirstDDL
App
Invisible IP Map v2.7 IP Hider
06/18
SKDown.Net
App
3D World Map v2.1 with High-Def Topography And Textures
06/18
softporal.ucoz.
App
Invisible IP Map 2.7
06/15
OFFv3 Blog
Movie
A Map of the World 1999 DVDRip Xvid
06/13
High St Hereos
Movie
A Map of the World 1999 DVDRip Xvid
06/07
Franklin Square
App
Invisible IP Map 2.7
06/05
Kurds Portal
App
Google Earth Pro Final 4.2.0205.5730 and Map Packs
06/05
XsX
App
Invisible IP Map 2.7
06/04
Warez Fantom
Movie
A Map of the World 1999 DVDRip Xvid
05/30
High St Hereos
App
3D World Map Portable
05/29
DownArchive

STUDY LINK-MBA

2008-09-28T01:31:00.001-07:00

Ebook
Complete Idiots Guide to MBA Basics
09/18
Links for Books
Other
The Extracted MBA A Topical Reference for the Contempor
08/09
TryFile.com
Other
Ebooks - Complete Idiots Guide to MBA Basics
12/10
Ebooks Library

STUDY LINK-CCNA

2008-09-28T01:28:00.000-07:00

Ebook
Learn CCNA In 5 Days
09/16
krazyidea.com
Other
Learn CCNA in 5 days
08/10
AiO Forum
App
CCNA Packet tracer simulator cisco 4.1
07/20
RENSLT
eBook
ebook Cisco Networking Academy Program CCNA 1 and 2 C
06/06
Giga Books
App
CCNA Network Visualizer v5.0.02
06/05
WDForum
App
SemSim Cisco CCNA Exam Router Simulator
04/24
FirstDDL
Other
CCNA Exam Cram Exam 640-802
04/15
Dl4All.com

SOFTWARE LINK-MP3

2008-09-28T01:27:00.000-07:00

App
Altdo Mp3 Record & Edit Audio Master v4.7
Today
IndianFunWorld
Script
Mp3 Search Script Se v1.5.5
Today
scriptmafia
App
Mp3 Dancers
09/27
TheLSC
Script
nSearcher - Multi MP3 Search Engine
09/26
nulledscripts
Script
x10media Mp3 Script v1.5.5
09/26
^
App
MP3 Audio Editor 6.6
09/25
SWtim.org
App
MP3 Workshop XP 2.00
09/23
TDF
App
MP3 Resizer v1.8
09/23
Download9x.com
App
PackPal MP3 Ringtone Maker 1.20
09/21
www.BladiSoft.c
App
PackPal MP3 Ringtone Maker v1.20
09/21
DeluxeWarez
App
Power AMR MP3 WAV WMA M4A AC3 Audio Converter 2.1
09/21
Share4all
App
Prograce MP3 Sorter v1.2.0 - Build 72
09/21
da-legends
App
Mp3 Audio Editor v7.3.1
09/20
Lemonshare
App
MP3 Boss 0.655
09/20
Free Soft
App
All Media To Mp3 Converter Pro 7.6
09/20
^
App
Mp3 Audio Editor 7.31
09/19
ColombianWarez
App
MP3 Audio Editor v6.9.6
09/19
W4REZ
App
Mp3 To Ringtone Gold 5.03
09/19
MechoPortal
App
Diet Mp3 3
09/19
OmniDDL
App
Mp3 Audio Editor 7.31
09/19
TurboDDL
App
MP3 Converter 4.2
09/19
Free Soft
App
Mp3 Audio Editor v7.3.1
09/18
Zipile.com
App
Wave MP3 Editor v11.0
09/18
Lemonshare
App
MP3 to Ringtone Gold 5.80.02.02
09/17
Start DDL
App
MP3 Remix 3.2 - Standalone Player
09/17
my-warez
App
Aleo Flash MP3 Player Builder v3.0.21
09/16
SPEEDOWN
App
MP3 Remix v3.600
09/16
Download9x.com
App
MP3 Cutter Joiner 2008
09/16
warezhack
App
MP3 CD Ripper Pro 2.0
09/16
Free Soft
App
Absolute MP3 Splitter & Converter 2.7.9
09/15
CysForum
App
Aleo Flash MP3 Player Builder v3.0.21
09/15
eSoft.in
App
MP3 Tag Editor 2.06
09/15
Fijoz
App
MP3 Ringtone Maker v1.20
09/14
DeluxeWarez
App
Focus Mp3 Recorder Pro 3.4
09/14
Free Soft
App
TextAloud MP3 v2.292
09/13
SKDown.Net

SOFTWARE LINK-MEDIA PLAYER

2008-09-28T01:24:00.000-07:00

SOFTWARE LINK-WINDOWS

2008-09-28T01:22:00.000-07:00

SOFTWARE LINKS-RAM

2008-09-28T01:20:00.000-07:00

SOFTWARE LINK-ANTIVIRUS

2008-09-28T01:15:00.000-07:00

App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 - 16.0.0.125
Today
Download9x.com
App
AVG AntiVirus 8 PRO (2008)
Today
SKDown.Net
App
Norton Antivirus 2008
Today
WarezBond
App
NOD32 Antivirus v3.0.414
Today
^
App
ESET NOD32 AntiVirus 3.0.672
Today
Prince Download
App
BitDefender Antivirus 2009 - Build 12.0.10
Today
^
App
RISING Antivirus 2008
Today
DownArchive
App
ZoneAlarm AntiVirus - v7.0.483.000
Today
UpToFly.com
App
ESET NOD32 AntiVirus 3.0.672
09/27
All You Wanna
App
BitDefender Antivirus 2009
09/27
eSoft.in
App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 - 16.0.0.125
09/27
Shared2u.com
App
BitDefender Antivirus 2009
09/27
Cyber-Share
App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 - 16.0.0.125
09/27
Free Softs
App
AVG Antivirus 8 Professional
09/27
^
App
BitDefender Antivirus 2009
09/27
^
App
BitDefender Antivirus 2009
09/27
RS Downloads
App
Norton Antivirus 2009
09/26
Archives4all
App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 - 16.0.0.125
09/26
warez-pro.blogs
App
NOD32 Antivirus Business Edition - v3.0.566.0
09/26
AIOStop
App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 16.0.0.125
09/26
spicyforums.com
App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 - 16.0.0.125
09/26
ColombianWarez
App
RISING Antivirus 2008
09/26
Shared2u.com
App
Kaspersky Antivirus 2009
09/25
Archives4all
App
Norton AntiVirus 2009 16.0.0.125
09/25
Forumcraze
App
Norton AntiVirus 2008
09/25
SWtim.org
App
Kaspersky Antivirus 2009
09/25
Share4all
App
Kaspersky Antivirus - 6.0.2.621
09/25
Warez Harbor
App
Norton AntiVirus 2008
09/25
UBDisk.orG
App
NOD32 Antivirus v3.0.672 - Business Edition
09/25
bLack FinaL
App
Avast Antivirus Pro 4.7
09/25
SWtim.org
App
NOD32 AntiVirus - 3.0.642
09/25
^
App
Rising Antivirus 2008
09/24
CoolSharez
App
Symantec AntiVirus Corporate Edition - 10.1.7000.7
09/24
Share-Rapid
App
Avast Bootable Antivirus & Recovery Tools CD
09/24
MechoPortal
App
AntiVirus Toolkit (Portable)
09/24
Share4all

MOVIE LINK

2008-09-28T01:09:00.000-07:00

jane tu ya jane na

Movie
Jane Tu Ya Jane Na - HQ Dvdrip
07/08
Gextop!
Movie
Jane Tu Ya Janne Na 2008 PDVD XViD
07/07
PhazeDemon

MOVIE LINK-ROCK ON

2008-09-28T01:07:00.000-07:00

http://rapidshare.com/files/143221198/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part1.rar
http://rapidshare.com/files/142922046/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part2.rar
http://rapidshare.com/files/142946533/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part3.rar
http://rapidshare.com/files/142959699/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part4.rar
http://rapidshare.com/files/142968680/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part5.rar
http://rapidshare.com/files/143188268/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part6.rar
http://rapidshare.com/files/143203171/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part7.rar
http://rapidshare.com/files/143216531/Rock_On_2008__1CD_PDVDRIP_xvid_subs.part8.rar

MOVIE LINK

2008-09-28T01:04:00.000-07:00

SOFTWARES LINKS

2008-09-28T00:55:00.000-07:00

BUSINESS PLAN SOFTWARES

2008-09-28T00:52:00.000-07:00

BUSINESS PLAN SOFTWARES
Business Plan Pro 2007 provides a super software program that enables you to quickly create a business plan. Once you have installed the program, it gets right to work for you. Opening the program presents a prompt allowing you to choose from starting a new business plan, open a sample plan, or open a plan already in progress. The Easiest Way to Write a Business Plan:With Business Plan Pro 2007 you get the newest, most complete business planning tool available all in one package. Business Plan Pro is more than just software that creates a business plan. Business Plan Pro is a complete business planning package that will help you improve and grow your business for years to come! Perfect for experienced entrepreneurs or individuals who have dreamed about starting a completely new venture. You can't move your business forward without a roadmap for success. Start planning today!Proven Format:Business Plan Pro is based on a business plan format recognized by leading banks, lenders, investors, and the Small Business Administration (SBA). Business Plan Pro walks you through the entire planning process and generates a complete, professional and ready to distribute plan with a proven formula for success. With the proprietary EasyPlan Wizard, writing a business plan is easier than ever, making it a snap to get started!Grow Your Business:Creating a business plan is not just for startups. Take your business to the next level with our easy-to-use, powerful, Plan vs. Actual financial tools. Track your results and manage your business better by comparing your actual numbers to the figures you projected in your plan. These tools help you better manage your profits, expenses and cash flow.New Features for 2007:In addition to all the standard tools, books and planning resources included with Business Plan Pro, there are many additional features that make this newest version the most comprehensive package ever offered. Some of the new features include a completely redesigned home page, giving you quick access to the resources used most. An embedded business glossary that provides detailed definitions of business terms in just one-click. Customize your final document in just one step by changing the colors used on all your charts. Business Plan Pro even checks for more common errors than ever and suggests solutions.Other Neat Features:Financial Planning Options BusinessPlan Pro helps you determine your strategy whether you want to sell your business, go public, or simply stay the course and grow. Some of the new topics include detailed Exit Strategy and Financial Risks and Contingencies.

BUSINESS PLAN SOFTWARES:-

2008-09-28T00:45:00.000-07:00

BUSINESS PLAN SOFTWARES

ITS ALL ABOUT BUSINESS

2008-09-27T09:47:00.000-07:00

Plan Your Business
Get Ready
Write a Business Plan
Start Your Business
Find a Mentor
Finance Start-Up
Buy a Business
Buy a Franchise
Name Your Business
Choose a Structure
Protect Your Ideas
Get Licenses and Permits
Pick a Location
Lease Equipment
Manage Your Business
Lead
Make Decisions
Manage Employees
Market and Price
Market and Sell
Understand Fair Practice
Pay Taxes
Get Insurance
Handle Legal Concerns
Forecast
Advocate and Stay Informed
Use Technology
Finance Growth
Getting Out
Plan Your Exit
Sell Your Business
Transfer Ownership
Liquidate Assets
File Bankruptcy
Close Officially

BUSINESS PLAN'S MISTAKES :-

1. Failing to incorporate early enough.One problem that arises here is the so-called "forgotten founder": a partner involved in starting the venture subsequently drops out. When the venture gets financing or is ready to go public, this partner returns, perhaps with an inflated view of what his or her contribution was, demanding equity. This problem can be eliminated by incorporatingearly and issuing shares to the founders, subject to vesting. As partial consideration for their shares, each founder should be required to assign to the new corporation all inventions and works related to the company's proposed business.Incorporating early - before significant value has been created and well in advance of any financing event that establishes an implicit value for the shares—also helps prevent potential tax problems for "cheap stock." Incorporating too late, and issuing inexpensive stock to thefounders at the same time that much more expensive stock is being sold to investors, can create tax problems when the IRS argues that the difference in stock price is actually income to the entrepreneur.

2. Issuing founder shares without vesting.Simply put, vesting protects the members of the founding team who take the venture forward. If people remain on the team and are productive, their shares will vest. If they leave earlier, that stock can be retrieved and given to whoever is brought in to replace them.

3. Hiring a lawyer not experienced in dealing with entrepreneurs and venture capitalists.Many venture capitalists say that they often rate the judgment of entrepreneurs by their choice of legal counsel. Lawyers who have no experience working with entrepreneurs and venture capitalists will most likely focus on the wrong things while failing to recognize some of the more subtle potential traps. It's better to hire someone who has played the game, who knows what's standard and what isn't, and who will get the deal negotiated and closed promptly.

4. Failing to make a timely Section 83 (b) election.If the advice in #9 is followed, then shares will be issued, subject to vesting, to the founders as well as new employees. If stock is acquired and it's subject to what the IRS calls a substantial risk of forfeiture, then the IRS doesn't view the purchase as being closed until that risk goes away. When the stock vests, that risk evaporates, so the IRS considers the deal closed. The IRS then calculates the difference between the price paid at the outset and the fair market value at that later date, then taxes this difference as ordinary income. An 83 (b) election allows the tax computation to be made basedon the value at the time the shares are issued, which is often pennies per share.
5. Negotiating venture capital financing based solely on the valuation.
A no-name firm offering the highest valuation is often not the best source of equity. Valuation is not the only thing one should consider when selecting a venture capitalist or when negotiating the deal. There are many other ways for venture capitalists to get compensated if they end up paying a high price for shares. These include requiring participating preferred with a high cumulative dividend, redemption rights exercisable after only several years, and ratchet anti-dilution protection with no cap.One must ask, what's the reputation of this firm? Do they have ahistory of standing by the entrepreneur if the entrepreneur stumbles? Do they have good contacts in the industry? In trying to build alliances, do they know the big players? A no-name firm offering the highest valuation is often not the best source of equity.

6. Waiting to consider international intellectual property protection.Patents are granted on a country-by-country basis (with a single application available for the European Union). In the United States, if an invention is sold or made public, there's a year's grace period to file a patent application. Everywhere else, if the invention is sold or publicized prior to filing the patent application, the invention is unpatentable in that country. For example, if the invention is publicly disclosed to a Japanese national visiting a tradeshow in the United States, then under Japanese patent law, if no patent application has been filed, that disclosure makes the invention unpatentable in Japan. The same is true with trademarks. A tremendous amount of money might be spent in developing a brand in the United States, yet when the product is shipped overseas it could violate trademarks of companies dealing in similar goods outside the UnitedStates. One must make intelligent choices of where they think their markets are, and how much money to spend at an early stage in order to insure that the brand is available in those markets.

7. Disclosing inventions without a nondisclosure agreement, or before the patent application is filed.If patent protection hasn't been obtained, or in cases where a patent is not available, the only protection is to maintain something as a trade secret. To do so, one must show that they've taken reasonable steps to keep it secret from competitors.Is it wise to get potential venture capitalists to sign a nondisclosure agreement? In the best of all worlds, yes, but most won't. Before disclosing to anyone, one must learn who has a reputation for integrity in the industry. In dealing with most people, it's wise to require them to sign nondisclosure agreements. It needn't be elaborate, but it should say that they acknowledge they may be exposed to trade secrets, and they agree not to use or disclose them without permission. Business plans should expressly state on the cover page that they are confidential and proprietary. That's not as strong as a nondisclosure agreement, but laws in some states suggest that if a person knows they have been exposed to a trade secret, they can't use it or disclose it without permission from the owner.

8. Starting a business while employed by a potential competitor, or hiring employees without first checking their agreements with the current employer and their knowledge of trade secrets.The law is clear that if someone is currently working for a company, particularly if her or she is a key employee, they cannot operate a competing business. Even just incorporating may spark a lawsuit from the current employer. Would-be entrepreneurs should first go to their current employer and either resign or tell them what they're doing and ask them if they'd be interested in investing. Amazingly, that's often a very smooth way of ending that relationship. Under no circumstances should they misrepresent the nature of the new business.Even after leaving the current employer, one still cannot use or disclose the company's trade secrets. Under the so-called inevitable disclosure doctrine, if someone has been exposed to trade secrets at their job and leaves to work for someone else, and if their responsibilities in the new job are sufficiently similar, some courts will conclude that it's inevitable that they will use the information that they had from the earlier position. They could face an injunction prohibiting them from working for the new employer until a number of months go by and whatever trade secrets they had are stale.It also helps to know whether potential recruits are subject tocovenants not to compete. States vary in terms of how enforceable they are, but one shouldn't assume they are not. One should also check to see what assignments of inventions might have been signed. Personnel files should be reviewed, and recruits should check theirs, to be certain that a covenant not to compete or an assignment of inventionswasn't tucked into a signed non-disclosure agreement.

9. Promising more in the business plan than can be delivered and failing to comply with state and federal securities laws.If someone promises to do something and knows that they can't perform that promise, that's considered fraud. In a business plan, one must make an honest appraisal of what's doable and set forth their assumptions, so the person putting up money can judge whether they are realistic. Can entrepreneurs be sued by their funders for fraud? Yes.Trying to squeeze out a little extra valuation by fudging the numbers erodes credibility, makes investors less trusting, and ultimately impairs the ability to get subsequent rounds of financing.Finally, anyone selling stock or other securities must comply with both the federal and state securities laws by either registering the securities (rare for a start-up) or meeting all the requirements for an applicable exemption. Ignorance of the law is no excuse. As one judge put it in a decision upholding criminal convictions for violating the securities laws: "No one with half a brain can offer 'an opportunity to invest in our company' without knowing that there is aregulatory jungle out there."

10. Thinking any legal problems can be solved later.There's a tendency to think, "Once I get my funding, once I'm up and running, then I've got time to hire the lawyers; right now, I'm running as fast as I can to get my business plan done and raising money." This is shortsighted logic. Many of the points made here are problems that can't just be patched up later. Does that mean that one should devote all of their time, effort, and money to the legal issues? No. That's a good reason to hire a competent lawyer. Excellentlegal talent can be retained for relatively little money up front at the early stages. It will cost much less to get it right at thebeginning than to try to sort it all out later and correct it.

HOW TO APPROACH VENTURE CAPITAL?

The VC connects wealthy investors to nerds. There are fewalternatives. You can self-fund by consulting and by setting aside money for your venture. That doesn't work. You could go to friends and family, but that risks friendships. You could find "angel" investors, but that only delays going to VCs.The VC community is a closed one. It caters to a restricted audience. In fact, you don't get to meet a VC unless you have a personal introduction. Don't send them your business plan unless the VC has personally requested it.VCs don't sign nondisclosure agreements. That affords them protection if they like your ideas, but they want tofund someone else to do them. At least two of my friends have had their ideas stolen and funded separately. One case was blatant theft--sections of the original business plan were crudely copied and taped into the VC-sponsored plan. My friend sued and won a moral victory and a little money. The start-up based on the stolen idea went public and made lots of money for that start-up's VCs. Most entrepreneurs don't have the time, the means, or the proof to sue. In the second case, venture firm D sent its expert several times foradditional "due diligence" regarding the possible investment. My friend got funding elsewhere, but D funded its expert with the same ideas.VCs are sheep. The electronics industry is driven by fads, just as the fashion and toy industries are. The industry is periodically swept by programming language fads: Forth, C++, Java, and so on. It's swept by design fads such as RISC, VLIW, and network processors. It's even swept bytechnical business fads such as the dot-coms. No area is immune. If one big-name VC firm funds reconfigurable electronic blanket weavers, the others follow. VCs either all fund something or none of them will. If you ride the crest of a fad, you've a good chance of getting funded. If you have an idea that's too new and too different, you will struggle for funding.VCs aren't technical. Mostly, they aren't engineers--even the ones with engineering degrees. An engineering degree is a starting point. If you design and build things, you can become an engineer; if you work on your career, youcan become an executive or a venture capitalist. VCs in Silicon Valley are as technically sophisticated as VCs come. As you get geographically farther from technical-industry concentration, investors become more finance-oriented and less technically-oriented. Like all people, they dismiss what they don't understand, your novel ideas, and they focus on what they know, usually irrelevant marketing terms or growth predictions.Experts aren't very good. The VC will send at least one "expert" to evaluate your ideas. Don't expect the expert to understand what you are doing. Suppose your ideaimplements a cell phone. The VC will send an expert who may know all there is to know about how cell phones have been built for the last 10 years. As long as your idea doesn't take you far from traditional implementations, the expert will understand it. If you step too far from tradition--say, with a novel approach using programmable logic devices instead of digital signal processors--the expert will not understand or appreciate your approach. One company I worked with had an innovative idea for a firewall: build it with programmable logic and it works at wire speed. Wire speedmeant no buffering, no data storage, and therefore no need for amicroprocessor or for an IP (Internet Protocol) address. Simple installation, simple management, but so different that experts - even those from programmable logic companies - didn't understand it. To them, proposing a firewall without a microprocessor and an IP address was like proposing a car without an engine. No funding. Back to workat a big company. Worse for them; worse for us. The industry loses.Progress is delayed.VCs don't take risks. VCs have a reputation as the gun-slinging risk-takers of the electronics frontier. They're not. VCs collect money from rich people to build their investment funds. Answering to their investors contributes to a sheep mentality. It must be a good idea if a top-tier fund invested in a similar business. VCs like to invest in pedigrees, not in ideas. They are looking for a team or an idea that has made money. Just as Hollywood would rather make a sequel than produce an original movie, VCs look for a formula that has brought success. They're not building long-lasting businesses; they're looking to make many times the original investment after a few years. When VCs build a venture fund, they charge the fund's investors a management fee and a "carry." The carry, which is typically 20 to 30 percent, is the percent of the investors' profit that goes directly to the VC. The VC, who gets a healthy chunk of any venture-fund profits,may have no money in the fund. Even a small venture fund will be invested across a dozen or so companies, spreading risk. Also, the VC, as a board member, will collect stock options from each start-up the fund invests in. The rich investors take some risk, though their risk is spread acrossthe fund's investments. The real risk-takers are the entrepreneurial engineers who invest time and brain power in a single start-up.Venture funds are big. Too big. If your idea needs a lot of money, say $100 million, then you have a better chance of getting money than an idea that promises the same rate of return for $1 million. The VCs running a $1 billion funddon't have the time to manage one thousand $1 million investments. It won't even be possible to manage two hundred $5 million investments. It's better to have fewer, bigger investments. In such an environment, if you need only $5 million, your idea will struggle for funding.VCs collude. VCs collect in "bake-offs" that are the VC's version of price fixing. They discuss among themselves funding and "pricing" for candidate start-ups. Pricing sets the number of shares and the value of a share, and is typically expressed in a "term sheet" from the VC to the start-up. VCs optimize locally. It wouldn't do for several of them tofund, say, six companies in an industry wedge. Limiting the options totwo or three limits competition and makes the success of the few more likely. The downside: limiting competition stifles innovation and slows progress. As in nature, competitive environments foster healthier organisms. Innovation is the beneficial gene mutation to the current technology's DNA.VCs don't say no. If the VC is interested, you can expect a call and, eventually, a check. If the VC is not interested, you won't get an answer. Saying "no" encourages you to look elsewhere--that's not good for the VC, who prefers to have you hanging around rather than going elsewhere forfunding. Fads change; the herd turns; your proposal may look better next year. In addition, the VC may want more due diligence from you - to add your ideas to a different start-up's plan. If VCs think you have few alternatives, they will string you along: "I love the deal, but it'll take time to bring the other partners along.""We need more time to get expert opinions.""We're definitely going to fund you, but we're closing a $500 million fund, and that's taking all our time.""I'll call you Monday."Once your alternatives are gone, they negotiate their terms.VCs have pets. The VC's version of a pet is the "executive in residence." Many venture firms keep a cache of start-up executives on staff at $10,000 to $20,000 per month (a princely sum to an engineer, but just enough to keep people in these circles out of the soup kitchens). Start-up executives, loitering for an opportunity, may collect these fees frommore than one venture firm, since the position entails no more than casual advising. These executives have "experience" in start-ups. When you show your start-up to the VCs, they will grill you about the "experience" of your executive team. It won't be good enough, but not to worry, the VC supplies the necessary talent. You get a CEO. The CEOreplaces your friends with cronies. The VCs' pets are like Hollywood's superstars. Just like Julia Roberts and Tom Cruise, the superstar CEOs command big bucks and bigpercentages (of equity)--driving up the cost of the start-up--but are "worth it" because they give investors and VCs a sense of security.Your idea, your work, their company. The VC's CEO gets 10 percent of the company. VC-placed board membersget 1 percent each. Your entire technical team gets as much as 15 percent. Venture firms get the rest. Subsequent funding rounds lower ("dilute") the amount owned by the technical team. Venture firms control the board seats. The VC on your board sits on 11 other boards. Board members visit once a month or once a quarter, listen to the start-up's executives, make demands, offer suggestions, and collectpersonal stock options greater than all of the company's engineers hold, with the possible exceptions of the chief technology officer and the vice president of engineering. The VC's executives control the company. You and the rest of the engineers do the work. VCs take advantage...to maximize the return for the venture fund's investors. Engineers are getting short-changed.Values at variance. The VCs know money and they don't care about the technology; the entrepreneurs know technology and they need money. Money knowledgeapplies across all the start-ups; the technical knowledge is unique to each. The VCs don't care about any single technology because they spread their investments across the opportunities. Knowing money isn't the same as knowing value. A year ago, VCs were lining up to give money to Internet dog-food companies; this year, they wouldn't back aninventor with a working Star Trek transporter. It's financial; it's not technical or personal. To the VC, the engineer and the ideas are commodities. The venture firm squeezes thetechnical team because it can. VCs believe that they are exercising their responsibility to maximize return for themselves and for the fund's investors.

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